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ATOLL RESEARCH ~ BULLETIN
19. Check List of Atolls by E. H. BRYAN, JR.
Nos. 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 September 30, 1953
20. Health Report of Kapingamarangi by RALPH E. MILLER
21. Notes on Ngaruangl and Kayangel Atolls, Palau Islands by J. L. GRESSITT
22. Summary of Information on Atoll Soils by E. L. STONE, JR.
23. Vegetation of Central Pacific Atolls, A Brief Summary by F. R. FOSBERG
250437
a (a ee
ZASASOI ES ~ / A i Ay, . ( OCT9 1953 )
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD
National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council
Washington, D. C., U.S. A.
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
9, Check List of Atolls
by E, H. Bryan, Jr.
22. Health Report on Kapingamarangi
by Raiph E. Miller
21. Notes on Ngaruangl and Kayangel Atolls, Palau Islands
by J. L. Gressitt
22. Summary of Information on Atoll Soils
by E. L, Stone, Jr.
23, Vegetation of Central Pacific Atolls, A Brief Summary
by F. R,. Fosberg
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences——-National Research Council
Washington, D. C.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Board.
It is of interest to note historically, that much of the fundamental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S. Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of such scientific inter-— est by the Navy is show by the support for the Pacific Science Board's research programs, CIMA, SIM, and ICCP, during the past six years. The Coral Atoll Program is a part of SIM.
The preparation and issuance of this Bulletin is assisted by funds from Contract No. N7onr-291, Task Order IV.
The sole responsibility for a11 statements made by authors of papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and do not necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or the editors of the Bulletin.
a me ee ee a ee
Editorial Staff
F. R. Fosberg, editor M. H. Sachet, assistant editor
Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be addressed to the above c/o Pacific Science Board National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington 25, D. C., U. S. A.
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
No. 19 Check List of Atolls
by E, H. Bryan, Jr.
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences-—-National Research Council
Washington, D. C.
CHECK LIST OF ATOLLS Compiled for the Pacific Science Board
by E. H. Bryan; Jr.
The following is a list of islands which are believed to qualify .as "atolls," as defined at the Coral Atoll Symposium, held in Honolulu, T.H.; in February 1951. Included are non-elevated limestone structures with dry land, with or without a lagoon, andi not associated closely with high land. Excluded are elevated atolls (height more than about 25 feet above the sea), swiken atolls (without dry land), barrier reefs surrounding high islands (such as the Truk group), and reef structures on fringing shelves or plat- forms adjacent to land masses (such as those on the Great Barrier Reef or to the north of western Java.)
This list is believed to contein most of the reef structures which qualify as "atolls" in Polynesia and Micronesia. The compiler is less fa~ milier with the reefs of other regions, and it is not unlikely that some "atolls" have been overlooked. Additions and corrections are desired, and your help is solicited to make a future edition cf this list as complete as possible. A number of suggestions have been received from Dr. F.R.Fosberg, and his help is gratefully acknowledged. Please send any data you may have to the writer at Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu 17, Hawaii. Please in- clude the geographical coordinates of the reef, or reference to some chart or publication, from which its qualifications as an "atoll" may be verified.
The arrangement in this list is similar to that used in the author's various gazetteers of Pacific islands: a tabulation arranged geographically is followed by an alphabetical list of all the names, keyed to the first list by means of letters and numbers. The letters refer to logical, con- venient, or established areas; the numbers to islands within the areas, in some definite sequence.
Under "notes", brief reference is made to such items of interest as elevations, number of islets, and the like; particularly those which might indicate that the reef is not a typical atoll. In the last column, refer- ence is given to a chart which shows the atoll or its location. Most of the numbers refer to U. S. Hydrographic Office charts.
About 400 "atolls" are listed. Of these, 136 are in Polynesia, 92 in Micronesia, 66 in Melanesia, 15 in Indonesia, 5 northwest of Australia, 68 in the rest of the Indian Ocean, 26 in the Caribbean Sea, and only one in the Atlantic. The greatest number in any political subdivision is the 75 in the Tuamotu Archipelago; however, across the central Pacific and out through Micronesia there are 136, one group crowding close upon the heels of another. Notes scattered through this list explain uncertainties regarding the exact status of reef structures in various groups, such as the Louisiade Archipelago [which has been added as M'], Indonesia, the islands northwest of Australia, and the Caribbean region. m
l.
GEOGRAPHICAL LIST OF
Key Accepted name Noe (Alternative names)
A. EASTERN PACIFIC 1.. Clipperton Island Ze Ducie Island
3e Oeno Island (Martha Island)
4. Timce Island (Crescent Island)
Be TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO (Paumotu, Low Islands)
1. Morane Island (Cadmus Island)
Ze Maria Island ; (Moerenhout Island)
3. Maturei-vaveo [Island].
(Melbourne Island)
Bie Tenarunga Island (Minto Island)
5. Vahanga Island (Bedford Island ?)
6. Tenararo Island -
‘7. Fangatau Island (Fangataufa Island) (Ahunui Island). (Cockburn Island)
8. South Marutea Island (Marutea Island) (Lord Hood(s) Island)
.-9.- iMururoa Island. (Matilda Island) (Osnaburgh Island)
10. Tematangi Island (Bligh(s) Island)
ATOLLS
Latitude Longitude
ie)
235
25
20
22
“2
21.
21
21
22
ral
el
21
39 40
06
20
O7
Ol
26
19. 20
19
15
30 50
40
Ne
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
‘Ss
Se
Se
Si
Se
Se
92 124
130
134
137 136
136
136.
136
136
138 135
138
140
1) t
O7 W. 10 W. 25 We 33 We 39 We
46 We
42 We
50 We 55 We
40 We
Notes
Rock 62' high
Trees 26 feet
[Gambier Is. ]
[Nos. 3 to 6 make up the Actaeon or Amphitrite Islands ]
H.O. Chart
1680 Lo
1977
ee
er Tad td 77 77
UGE
Tee
Ait
77 2004
al
Key Accepted name 3 Latitude Longitude Notes H.O.
Ne. (Alternative names) oF ie. Chart
Be
ll. Tureia Island 20 46 §. 138 31 W. ve (Carysfort Island)
(Papakena Island)
12. Vanavana Island 20 37 S. 139 08 W. 77 (Barrow Island)
(Kuratake Island)
13. Nukutipipi Island 20 42 S. 143 03 W. [Nos 13-15 make 77 (Margaret Island) up the Duke of 84
Gloucester
14, Anu-anu-runga Island 20 38 S. 143 33 W. Islands] 77 (Four Crowns ) 84. (Quatro Coronados)
(Teku Island)
15. Anu-anu-raro Island “20 28 8. 148 33 We 77 (Archangel ) , 84 (Heretua )
(San Miguel Archangel)
16. Hereheretue Island 19 53 S. 145 05 W. an (Saint Paul Island) 84 (Sen Pablo Island)
17. Reao Island 18 30 S. 136 20 W. 77 (Clermont de Tonnere I.) 78 (Clermont-Tonnerre)
18. Pukaruha Island 1320 Sia Loy 02 We . 77 (Searle Islend) 78
‘19. Tatakoto Island 17 20 S. 138 22 W. var (Clerke Island)
(Narcissus Island) (San Narciso)
20. Pinaki Island 19 22 S. 138 42 W. 1% (Whitsunday Island)
21. Nukutaveke Island 19 #6 S. 138 51 W. 77 (Queen Charlotte I.)
22. Vairaatea Island .19 18 S. 139 19 W. aT (Rgmont Island)
23. Vahitahi Island 18 44 S..138 52 We 77
(Cook Lagoon) (Four Facardins) (Lagoon Island)
Key Accepted name _ Latitude Longitude Notes HeO. No. (Alternative names) | ot Oye Chart
B. [TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO,,. Conte],
24. Akiaki Island 18 30 S. 139 14 W. 77 (Lencier Island) (Thrum Cap)
25. Ahunui Island 19 40 S. 140 25 W. 77
(Byam Martin Island)
26. Paraca Island 19 09 S. 140 43 We Tae (Glaucester Island) (Hariri Island)
27. Manuhangi Island 19 11 S. 141 15 W. 17 (Cumberland Island)
28. Nengonengo Island 18 50 S. 141 47 We 77 (L'Orange Island) (Prince William Henry I.)
29. Hao Island 18 10 S. 140 55 W. 77 (Bow Island) 2004 (Harp Island) ' (La Harpe Island)
30. Amanu Island 17. 48, Se. 140 45 We 77 (Meller Island) vai 2061
31. Ravahere Island L825. Se 142. LO We aa.
(Dawhaida Island) ()
32. Marokau Island LB! O35, (Se L42) 27 We 77
: 79
35- Reiteru Island 17 48 S- 143 06 W. 77
(Bird Island)
34. Haraiki Island 17 28 S. 143 32 We te (Croker Island) (SteQuentin Island)
35. Hikueru Island . 17 $6 S.' 142 40 We TOT (Melville Island) i,
36-2 Tekokota Island LT V9 Se. 142 Sl We fee 77 (Daubtful Island)
37. Tauere Island tT 22':Se, 141 28 We (0)
(Resolution Island) ae 83 (St.Simeon Island) ae er ae
Key Accepted name
NOe
B. ‘[TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO, Cont. ]
386
396 40. 41. 42. 143.
44, 45.
46.
47.
48. 496
50.
Sl.
(Alternative names)
Rekareka Island (Good Hepe Island)
North ilarutea Island (Furneaux Island) (Marutea Island)
Nihiru Island (Nigeri Island)
Pukapuka Island~ (Dog Island) (Henauke Island) (Honden Island)
Fakahina Island (Fangahina Island)
Angatau Island (Arachecheeff Island) (Arakchev Island)
Napuka Island (Wytoohee Island)
Tepoto Island (Otooho Island)
Takume Island (Wolchonsky Island) (Welkonsky Island)
Raroia Island (Barclay de Tolley I.)
Taenga Island (Helt Island) (Yermaloff Island)
Makemo Island (Koutouseff Island) (Phillips Island)
Katiu Island (Saken Island)
Tuanake Island (Reid Island)
16
LP
16
14
15
15
14
14
15
16
16
16
16
16
49
00
43
56
59
49
09
05
45
05
19
35
25
40
5e
S.
S.
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
Se
Latitude Longitude o O
141
143
142
138
140
140
141
141
142
142
143
143
144
144
Notes Hes
, Chart
55 We 77
10 W. vad
50 W. 77
45 We 77
83
O7 We 77
2038
51 We 77
15 We [44 & 45 make 77
up the 78 Disappointment
24 W. Group] 77
78
10 W. a7
83
23 W. [1952 survey] 77
2024
O06 We. 77
20 ~ 144 W. a)
2037
20 We 77
14 We. [51-53 make up 77
the Raveski 82 or Seagull greup]
668.
69.6
Accepted name (Alternative names). —
Hiti Island
Tepoto Island (Eliza Island)
Motutinga Island (Adventure Island)
Tahanea Island (Tchigschagoff I.)
Anaa Island (Chain Island)
Faaite Island (Myloradowitich I.)
Fakarava atoll (Wittgenstein Island)
Raraka Island ae Taiaro Island (King's Island)
Kauehi Island
_ (Vincennes . Island)
Aratikea Island (Carlshov Island) (Karlshoff Island) |. «
Toau Island (Elizabeth atoll)
: Niau atoll
(Greig atoll) Kaukura atoll
Apataki Island (Hegemeister Island).
Arutua Island (Rurick Island)
Tikei Island (Remanzeff Island)
Takaroa Island (Tinkea atoll)
16
0
16,
17 16 uy 16 16
16
15
15
15
16
15
15
15
Wve
14
44 20
10
44,
50
02
LO
q
3 3
OT
Latitude
Se
Se
Se
Se
Si.
Se
Ss.
Se
SIE
Longitude
ie)
144
144 144 144 145
145
, 145
144
144
q
08 W.
17 We
22 We
47 We
50 We
15 We
30 We
50 We
37 We
10 W.
30 We
nee - § be i
00 Wel ot
49 We
20 We
45 We
52 We
55 We
Notes H.O.
_ 2159
2063
77, 80
75 Wo
neatly | Wie ee 88
77, 81
Ct 2004
77 [68 to. 67 called 77
Palliser, Schadelyk, or 77,81
Pernicious 2062 Islands. ] et CT
[69=70, King (Gees George's group]
Key Noe
Accepted name (Alternative names)
Be [TUAMOTU ARCHIPELAGO Cont. ] 14 36 S.
70.
71.
72s
736
74.6
756
Takapoto Island (Oura Eis Ura atell) (Taputa Island)
Manihi Island (Waterlandt Island) (Wilsens Island)
Ahe Island (Peacock Island)
Rangiroa Island (Deans Island) (Nairea atoll) (Rahiroa atoll) (Vliegen atoll)
Tikahau Island (Krusenstern Island)
Mateahiva Island (Lazareff Island) (Mataiwe Island)
Latitude Oo ff
14 26 §.
14
15
14
30
05
00
54
Se
Se
S.
Se
Longitude @ !
145 12 W.
145 55 W.
146 17 W.
147 40 W.
148 10 W.
148 40 W.
Notes
C. AUSTRAL [1], SOCIETY [2-6], and MARQUESAS ISLANDS [7]
Le
Ze
4.
Maria Island (Hull Island) (Nororutu Island) (Sands Island)
Tetiaroa Island (Fugitive Island) (Tetuarea Island) (Umaitia Island)
Tubai Island (Motu Iti)
Mopihaa Islands (Howe I., Lord Howe I.) (Maura Island) (Mobidie Island) (lopelia Island)
Fenua Ura (Scilly Islands)
Bellingshausen Island Coral Island
(Cetar Island) (Ile de Sable)
2l 49 S.
17
16
16
16
15
7
05
16
49
30
50.
63
S.
Se
154 41 W.
149 32 W.
151 49 We
153 57 W.
154 40 W.
154 30 W.
140 23 W.
He O: Chart
TT SE
77, 82
77, 82
Tigi 80 960
77, 85
77, 85
2228
77
2023
1987
824a
824a
1797
aa oe
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes HaOe No. (Alternative names) — ont aM Chart
D. CENTRAL PACIFIC (British South Equatorial [1-5], Equatorial [6,10,33,34], British North Equatorial [7,8,9], Cook [11,12], Northern Cook [13-19], Tokelau [22-24], Phoenix [25-32].
1. Caroline Island 10 00 §. 150 14 W. 1980 (Thornton I.)
2e Flint Island 11 26 S. 151 48 W. No lagoon 1980
3. Vostok Island 10 06 S. 152 23 W. No lagoon - 1980
(Anne I.) (Stavers I.) (Bostock I.)(Vostock I..) ~, (Wostock I.)
4. Starbuck Island 5 37 Se. 155 53 We No lagoon 1980 (Volunteer I.)
5. Malden Island 4 03 S.,154 59 W. Shallow lagoon 1980 (Indevendence I.) entirely enclosed (Maldon I.)
6. Jarvis Island On234S. 2601.02 We No lagoon, 1198 (Brock, Brook I.) be "pancake" (Bunker, Jervis I.)
(Volunteer I.)
7. Christmas Island 1 55 Ne. 157 20 W. Largest land 1839 area 8. Fanning Island "as02) Ne Lod. 253We) 1624 (Tapueerangi ) 9, Washington Island | 4 43 We 160°26 We Bogs and 1839 (New York I.) fresh water lake
(Prospect I.)
10. Palmyra Island 5 52 Ne 162 06 W. »,, £839 (Samarang I.) ” of . eT lOA. Kingman Reef 6 23 Ne,l62 20 W. Sunken atoll... 2020 dry patch # end a | ll. Takutea Island 19 49 S. 158 18 W. 2000 (Fenua Iti) sige iy Gi i | (Otakootaia)
12. Hervey Islands 19-25 Ss, 258.56 W. via 2000 [Made up of: ] ’ otal Auotu or Te Auo Tu Manuae [1I.]
13. Tongareva Island 9 00 Ss. 158 03 : oe 1986 (ilangorongoro I.) (Penrhyn I, )
14. Manihiki Island LOM 23) Sie) LER Ole 1980 (Humphrey I.) a (Manahiki I.)
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes H.O. No. (Alternative names ) Bi ner Chart D. CENTRAL PACIFIC (cont.)
15. Rakahanga Island 10 02 S. 161 06 W. 1980 (Grand Duke Alexander) (Reirson I.)
16. Palmerston Islands LS 04 S. 1635 10 W. 1980 (Auarua I.) » Suvarov Islands Pease Sep, oo OF, Wis 1980
mE (Souworoff Is.) (Suwaroff, Suwarrow Is.)
18. Nassau Island 1} 35 Se 165 25 We No lagoon 1980 (Mitchell I.)
19. Pukepuka [atoll] 10 55 S. 165 50 W. 1980 (Danger Islands)
20. Rose atoll 14 33 S. 168 O09 W. 2924 (Kerdinkoff I.)
21. Swains Island ll 03 S. 171 05 W. "Doughnut", 5419 (Gente Hermosa ) nearly fresh lake
(Jenning's I.) (Olosenga, Quiros I.)
22. Fakaofu Island 9 25 Ss L71L 15 Wa 126
(Bowditch I.) (Fakaafo I.)
25 Nukunono Island 9 10 S. 171 53 W. 126 (Duke of Clarence I.)
24. Atafu Island 8 32 S. 172 31 W. 126 (Duke of York I.) (Oatafu I.)
256 Sydney Island 4.27 Se 171 16 W. "Doughnut", 5738 (Manra I.) very salt lagoon
26. Hull Island 4 29 Se 272 10 W. Biot (Orona Ie)
27. Gardner Island 4 40 S. 174 32 W. 97358 (Kenins I.) (Nikumar oro )
38. McKean Island 3 36 S. 174 08 W. "Panchke" 5739
"dug" lagoon
29. Birnie Island 5 $5 S. 171 31 W. "Pancake" 5739
50. Phoenix Island 5 45 S. 170 43 We Small lagoon 5739
31. Enderbury Island 5 08 S. 171 05 W. Small lagoon 5739
52. Canton Island 2.50 S- 171 43 Wi. 5740 (Abariringa, ilary I.) (wary Balcout I.) (Swallow I.)
33. Baker Isiand O13 N. 176 28 W. "Pancake", 1198 (New Nantucket, Phoebe I.) no lagoon
96
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes HO.
NO. (Alternative names) ° Bot ra te Chane
D. CENTRAL PACIFIC (cont.)
34. Howland Island O 48 Ne 176 38 W. "Pancake" 1198 (Worth I.) no lagoon
35. Johnston Island 16 45 Ne 169 30 We 2 sand islets 5356 (Cornwallis I.) on shoal
{There are no true atolls in Tonga, and none in Samoa other than Rose atoll. ‘Swains I., administered by American Samoa, is geographically in the Tokelau (or Union) group. iMinerva Reef has been called an "atoll", but is submerged, |
EH. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
1. Laysan Island zo 46 N. 171 44 W. Shallow lagoon 2 (Moller I.)
2» Lisianski Island 26 04 N. 173 58 We No lagoon (Pell, Raskar’ I.) - (Lassion, Cladius I.)
(Lisiansky I.) 3 Pearl and Hermes Reef 27 48 Ne. 175 51 W. Atoll
4, Midway Islands 28.165 Ne LWT 235 Ne Atoll 1952 (Brooks, Middlebrook Is.) (llassachusetts I.) ae
on e
Kure Island 28 (25) Ne, lls: 25 We Atoll (Cure Is, Ocean TI.)
F, ELLICH ISLANDS
1. Wiulakita NG, 25S. C R79: BO man 1981 (Nurakita I.) (Sophia Ie)
2. Nukulailai - 9° 22h, 079) Sik ah, ig 1981 (Mitcheil I.)
(Nukulaelae)
3e Funafuti Srsi se 79008 my 1802
(Bllice atoll) (Fanaawa I.)
4. Nukufetau 8 00 S.,178 29 EH. 1981 (De Peyster I.)
5. Vaitupu Island t 28° Se L7e 40. He 1981 (Aitupu;sOsitupu 1.) (iracy te)
6. Nui Island © 16 Seat LOB. 1981 (Egg, Netherland I.)
' 7. Niutao Island 6) O6*S.- 177 16 Be. a 1981
(Lynx, Sepper I.) (Speiden I.)
(oa) e
Nanumenga Island 6,18) Se TKS 2 Hs 1981 (Hudson, Nanomana I.) ik
Key Accepted name
No.
{Alternative names)
(F. ELLICE ISLANDS cont.)
9.
15.
16.
Nanumea Island (Nanomea I.) (St Augustine Is.) GILBERT ISLANDS
Arorae Island (Arorai I., Hurd I.)
Tamana Island
' (Rotcher I.)
Onotoa Island (Clerk I.)
Tabiteuea Island (Drummond I.) (Tapeteuea, Taputeuea I.)
Nikunau Island (Byren I., Nukunau I.)
Beru Tsiand (Francis I., Peru I.)
Nonouti Island (Nonuti, Sydenham I.)
Aranuka Island (Henderville I.) (Nanouki I.)
Kuria Islands (Woodle I.)
Abemama Island (Apamama, Hopper I.)
Maiana Island (Hall T.)
Tarawa Island (Cogk Las) Knox Is)
Abaiang Island (Apaiang I., Apia I.) (Charlotte I.)
Marakei Island (Maraki I., Matthew I.)
Butaritari Island (Makin I., Taritari I.)
Little Makin Island (Makin I.[{"Muggin"] ) (Makin Meang, Pitts I.)
Latitude °
!
5 389
239
1 20 0 40
0 10
O 14 i
‘Oren t
1 50
3 05
5 16
Longitude ie) ?
S.
Se
Ne
li.
128
176
175
175
174
Ate
172
08
58
25
51
Ol
00
02
20
50
08
He
Notes
[ilo lagoon]
[No lagoon]
[No lagoon]
[No lagoon]
HlOie Chart
1981
» EUS
tg
19
L119
119
LES
121,2179
122
Ze 122 4001, 4002 Lee
122
[AMS and war maps]
[AMS maps ] [AMS maps ]
[No lagoon]
123
122
2179
A 2/ Key Accepted name Latitude No. (Alternative names) Oo"
H. MARSHALL ISLANDS (RATAK Chain, south to north)
1. Mili Atoll 6 08 (Mille, Milli I.) (Mire, Miri To) (Mulgrave I.)
2e Arno Atoll (, muss
(Ahrno I.,Aruno To) (Daniel .,Pedder I.)
3. Majuro Atoll 7 O7 (Arrowsmith I.) (Madjuro I.,Mezyuro To)
4. Aur Atoll 8 15 (Aurh I.,Auru To) {Ibbetson, Traversey I.)
Maloelao Atoll 8 45 (Arakcheeff Ise) (Bass Reeftied, Calvert) (Kaven, Kawen)
(Maloelab, Maroerappu To)
5
6. Erikub Atoll 9 08 (Ervkuppu To) (Tschitschagoff)
7. Wotje Atoll 9 28
(Odjia, Odtia) (Romanzoff,Romanzov,Rqomanzow) (Wotsch, Wozzie To)
Likiep Atoll 9nb5 (Count Heiden) (Likieb, Rikieppu To)
9. Jema Island ' 10 08 (Djemo, Temo,Timo ) - (Tiemo To) 10. Ailuk Atoll ~ 10 20
5 (Ailu, Airukku To) (Tindal, Watts)
ll. Mejit Island 10 17 (Mejdit, Meziti To) = | (Miadi, New Year I.)
12. Taka Atoll 11 08 (Teke To) (Suvarov, Suwarow)
13. Utirik Atoll 1 25
(Kutusov, Kutusow) (Utorokku To)
Bikar Atoll £2) 15 (Dawson, Pikaru To)
14
Longitude Oo +4
Ne
Ne
Ne
Ne
Ne
Ne
Ne
Ne
Ne
aal
Ve ed: L171
171
170
169 169 LCS 170 168 169
170
o7
42
te
05
00
00
00
08
32
57
53
38
48
05
Be
He
Be
He
He
He
He
Be
Notes HaOs Chart
[AMS maps ]6001, 6002
[AMS maps }6004,6005 [AMS] F.2007,2008. [AMS maps] 6014
[AMS maps ]6014,6016
[AMS maps] . 6017
[AMS],6017,6018, 6019
[AMS maps] 6020
[AMS maps ]5413,5427 (No lagoon)
[AMS maps] 6022 [AMS map? 5413 (No lagoon)
[AMS maps ] 6023 [AMS maps] 6023 [AMS maps] 6024
Key Accepted name
Noe
(Alternative names)
(H. MARSHALL ISLANDS cont.)
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20
ae 226
a.
24
256
266
27.6
28.
Taongi or Pokak Atoll 14 35 N. (Gaspar Rico) (Pokaakku To, Smyth I.)
(RALIK Chain, south to north)
Ebon Atoll 4 38 N. (Boston, Epon To)
Namorik Atoll 5 36 Ne (Baring, Namurikku To)
Kili Island 5 39 Ne (Hunter I., Kiri To)
Jaluit Atoll 600 1.
(Bonham, Djaluit)
(Yaruto To)
(Coquille [N.part])
(Elizabeth [S.part]) Ailinglapalap Atoll 7 25 N.
(Airingurapurapu To)
(Elmore, Odia)
(pronounced "Eye-ling-lub-lub" )
Jabwot Island 7 45 NN. (Djabwat I.,Zyabatto To) Namu Atoll 8 OO N.
(Namo, Nemu, Musquillo) (Lambert [N.part]) (Ross Is.[S.part] )
Lib Island 8 19 Ne (Erippu To, Lip I.)
Lae Atoll 8 56 Ne (Brown, Lai, Rae To)
Ujae Atoll 9 04 Ne
(Catherine, Katharine) (Udjae, Uzyae To)
Kwajalein Atoll 9 05 Ne (Kuezyerin To) (Kwedhelin & other variants) (Menschikoff, Mentschikow) (Catherine [N.part] ) (Lydia [middle part]) (Margaretta [S.part])
Wotho Atoll 10 O7 N.
(Schanz, Uotto,Wotto To) (Wottho Inseln)
Ailinginae Atoll ll O08 Ne (Airinginae To)
13.
168
168
168
169
169
168
168
168
167
166
165
167
165
166
Latitude Longitude o.# o ¢
58
43
O7
O7
55
45
10
24
15
58
20
58
30
Ee
He
Re
Be
Be
Ke
Ee
Be
He
Be
Ee
Be
Be
Notes H.O. 4 Chart [AMS maps] 6024 [AMS maps]... 5429 5429
[AMS map] 5414
(No lagoon) 6007 ,6008,6010
6011,6012 [AMS map] 6011 (No lagoon) [AMS maps ] 6013 [AMS ~ap] 5428 (No lagoon) [AMS maps] 6036 [AMS maps] 5428 [AMS maps ] 5428
(Largest lagoon
in. Marshalls)
[AMS maps] . 5427
[AMS maps] 6026
Tet
Key Accepted name
Noe jy (H. MARSHALL ISLANDS cont.) 29. Rongerik Atoll nat
(Pescadore Is.) (Rongirikku To)
50. Rongelap Atoll ay (Rimski-Korsakoff Is.) (Rongelab, Rongorappu Ts)
Sl. Bikini Atoll 1 (Bigini, Pikinni To) (Escholtz, Eschschoitz)
32. Eniwetok Atoll 11 (Brown, Eniaidok) (Eniwetakku To)
356 Ujelang Atoll 9
(Arecifos, Providence) © (Udjelang, Uziran To)
I. ISOLATED ISLANDS IN NORTHWEST
1. Wake Island or Atoll 19 (Halcyon, Mendana) (San Francisco, Otori Jima) (Wakes Ie)
2. Marcus Island 24 (Minami Tori Shima) Se Parece Vela 20
(Douglas Reef)
20 Ne
20 Ne
55 Ne
30 N.
50 Ne
! 167 166 165
162
160
PACIFIC
17 Ne
18 Ne
20 Ne
J. CAROLINE ISLANDS (east to west)
1. Pingelap Atoll 6 _ (McAskill, Macaskill) (Musgrave, Pelelap,Pélelep) — (Pingarappu To, Pingoulap)
2. Mokil Atoll 6 (Duperry, Duperrey) (Mokiru To, Mogal) (Wellington I.)
3» Ant Atoll i 6 ' (Andema, Anto To)
(Fraser, William the Fourth)
4, Pakin Atoll 7 (Pagenema, Paguenema) 5. Ngatik Atoll 5
(Natikku Te, Los Valientes) (Raven, Seven Ise) 6. Oroluk Atoll Ue
(Baxotristo) (Oraluk, Ororukku To)
13 Ne
40 Ne
54 Ne
OS Ne
50 Ne
52 Ne
14.
166
153°
136
160
159
157
157
157
155
Latitude Longitude )
27
25
15
35
58
05
41
46
58
48
48
18
Be
Ke
He
Be
me
Be
He
Be
Ke
Be
He
Be
Be
Ke
Notes [AMS maps ] radi maps |
[AMS maps ] (Atomic tests)
Hee Chart
6026
6029
6032
[AMS maps ] 6033 (Atomic tests)
[AMS maps] 6035
[AMS map | 162
- (No lagoon) 5590
(Reported 5590 10 ft. elev.)
5425
5425
6039,6041
6039
6042,6108
6043
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes H.O.
No. (Alternative names) o1 Pos Chart (J. CAROLINE ISLANDS cont.) 7. WNukuoro Atoll 3 51 N. 154 58 E. 6042
(Dunkin, Monteverde) (Monteverdeson's group) (Nugoru To)
8. Kapingamarangi Atoll 1 03 Ne 154 46 E. 6042 (Constantine, Greenwith) (Guranitti To, Kabeneylon) (Kapen~Mailang, Makarama) (Pescadores, Pikiram)
9, Nomoi or Mortlock Islands [Made up of three atolls] 6044 (Lukunor-gruppe ) (Mototokke Shoto)
ae Etal Atoll 5 35 Ne. 155 54.E. 6044
(Eteru To, Neiad) (Namolotou)
be. Lukunor Atoll 5 SL Ne 153 46 E. 6044 (Namonefeng, Rukunoru To) Ce Satawan Atoll 52d: Net Soe aoe. 6044,6045 (Satoan, Sataoan,Satouwan) 10. Namoluk Atoll 5 55 Ne 153 08 B. 5425 (Harvest, Skiddy, Namorukku To) 11. Losap Atoll 6 52 Ne 152 42 E. 5424
(Duperrey, Lossop~Inseln) (Louasappe, Lukeisel) (Rosoppu To, Royalist)
12. Nama Island 7.00 Ne 152 35 Be (lio lagoon) 5424 (San Rafael, d'Urville-Insel) 13. Hall Islands [Made up of two atolls] @. Murilo Atoll 8 40 N. 152 12 E. 6052
(Morileu, Mourileu) (Muriro Shoto)
be Nomwin Atoll 8 31 Ne 151 47 E. 6052, 6098,6099
(Fananou, Namoin) (Namolipiafane, Namuuin Shoto)
14. East Fayu Island 8 24 Ny 1Si°ge my (No lagoon) 5425 (East Faiu, Faieu) (Japan Fayu, Liltke I.)
(Rukute To)
15. Kuop Atoll 7 04 Ne. 151 55 E. [Immediately 6046 (Kimisisima Shoto) south of Truk, which (Kunto Shoto, Royalist Is.) is not an atoll.]
16. Namonuito Atoll 8 45 Ne 150 O05 E. 5422
(Aniaima, Bunkey) (Livingston, Litke) (Onon, Onoun, Onoune)
(Ororu Shoto, Remp, etc.) 15
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes © Hse
No. (Alternative names) o.1 o Chart (J. CAROLINE ISLANDS cont.)
17. Pulap Atoll 7 $5 Ne 149 25 Ee 5421 (Los Martires, Ollap) ace wis ; (Pollap, Pourappu To)
(Pullop, Puttep, Tamatam) (Tametam, Temetam Ise)
18. Puluwat Atoll 7 21 N. 149 11 E. 9425 (Endabi, Enderby) (Kata, de Cata, Luguen) (Poloac, Poloat, Polowat) (Poulouote, Puluot, etc.)
19. Pulusuk Island 6 41 N. 149 19 E. (No lagoon) 5425 (Haug, Hog, Hok, Houg) (San Bartolome, Saok, Saugk) (Sauugk, Schoug, Scheug,Schoog) (Shukku To, Socu, Sog, Sooughe) (Sougk, Souk, Sove, Siukku To)
20. Pikelot Island 8 05:-Ne 147438 Bye (No lagoon) 5425 (Coquille, Bigali, Pigali) (Lydia, Pigoualao, Pigerotto To) (Pikela, Pyghella, etc.)
21. Satawal Island Hod Ne wlan 02 Be (io lagoon) 5426 (Sataual, Satavan, Satawan) (Satuwal, Satowal, Satowalairak) -(Sasaon, Setoan, Tucker) 22e West Fayu Island 8 05 Ne 146 44 E. (No lagoon): 5426
(Faliau, Faiyao) (Huiyao, West Faiu)
25- Lamotrek Atoll 7 30 Ne 146 20 EB. 6042 (Lamorsu To, Lamureck) (Lamurrec, Namotikku To)
(Namochikku To, Namouttek) (Namurrek, etce)
24. Elato Atolls 130) Nes 146 LOR. [Two atolis] 5426
(Elat, Elath, Erato To). (Helato, Olutai, Olutel, Ylatu,etc.)
25. Olimarao Islands 7 41 N. 145 52 Ee [Two islands: 5426 (Namoliaour, Olimarau) Olimarao and (Onomarai ) Filifil]
26-6 Gaferut Island 914 N. 145 23 Ee (110 lagoon) 6042
(Grimes I.,Gurimesu To)
27. Faraulep Atoll .. 8 36 Ne 144 33 E. i 6042 (Faraulip, Farroilap) (Fattoilap, Foraulep,Foroilap) (Furaarappu To, Huraarappu To).
Ifalik Atoll % 15) Nea er Be 5425 (Faloc, Furukku To, Hurukku To) (Ifaluk, Ifalouk, Ifelug, Ifeluk, etc.)
16.
28
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude No. (Alternative names) o1 on
(J. CAROLINE ISLANDS cont.)
29. Woleai Atoll 7 21 Ne 145 53 i. (Anangai, Mereyon To) (Oleai, Oleei, Olie, Ouleai) (Ulea, Uleai, Ulie, Wolea, etc.)
30. Eauripik Atoll 6 41 Ne 143 03 HE. (Auripik, Aurupig, Iuripik) (Kama Ise, Yoropie) (Yorupikku To, Yuripik, etc.)
[Note: Fais Island is a raised reef structure. |
$1. Sorol Atoll 8 O08 Ne 140 23 E. (Sarol, Saracn, Soral) (Sororu To, Phillip Is.,Zaraol)
$2. Ulithi Atoll 9 56 Ne 1389 40 E. (Meckenzie Ose,Ouluthy) (Uluthi, Urushi To)
$3. Ngulu Atoll 8 27 Ne 137 29 E. (Angegul, Kurru To, Matelotas) (Lamoliaur Ulu, Lamoliork) (Lamuniur, Lumuliur, Ngelu) (Ngiul, Ngolu, Ngoli, Ngolii) (Ngoly, Ngolog)
54a. Ngaruangl Reef 8 10 Ne 134 38 E.
34b. Kayangel Islands 8 03 N. .134 43 E. (Kajangle, Kajanguru) (Kazanguru To, Moore Isle)
35. Sonsorol Islands 5 20 Ne 132 13 Ee (Sonisol, Sonsol, Sonesor) (Sonsonorol, Sonesor, Songosor) (Sonsoru To, Kodgubi) (San Andreas, St.Andrew I.)
36~ Pulo Anna Island 440N. 131 58 E. 7 (Bur, Current, Palolo) (Pul, Pur, Puru Anna, Wul, Wull)
37. Merir Island 419 N. 132 19 E. (Merier, Meliel) (Pulo Warier, Warren Hastings)
386 Tobi Island 3 00 N. 131 10 E. (Lord North, Nevil I.) (Codopuei, Kadogubi) (Togobei, Tokobe)
39e Helen Reef 2 DO Ne om AY Bie
(Heren Sho, Hoten Rif) | 40. Mapia Atoll 0 50 Ne 134 17 E.
(Freewill Is., Onata Is.) (St.David Is.) 17.
Notes:
He@s Chart
6054
0426
6055, 6056, 6057
[Reef has
one islet, 6 ft.
6058
6074 J
6073,6075
[Both these are
in northern Palau]
[Two small islands, no lagoon. |
[No lagoon]
[No lagoon]
[No lagoon]
[Small, low islet at Ne end]
[Not part of Micronesia, but claimed by Dutch]
5424
5426
5426
5426
6072
9426
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes ~H.O. No. (Alternative names) Ons Cet Chart
K. FIJI [Note: There are numerous reef structures in Fiji, but few of them qualify as "atolls" because of absence of dry land or proximity to high islands. Only two, Wailangilala and Negele- levu, are classed as "true atolls" by R.A.Derrick, The Fiji, Islands, a geographical handbook. 1951. ]
1. Tuvana-i-tholo 2102 S.- 178 SOW). Smal sand cay, 409
(Simonoff I.) 95 ft.to treetops, surrounded by reefs 2- Tuvaba-i-ra 21 00 S. 178 44 W. Ditto, 90 ft. to 409 - (Michaeloff I.) treetops. 3e Niambo Island 18 57°S. 178 22 We Ditto, 40 ft. to 2852 treetops. 4, Wailangilala Island 16 45 S. 179 Of W. ‘True atoll. 2851
5e Nanuku Reef 16 45 S. 179 27 W. 2851 [Reef complex on or near which are located: Nukusemanu I. 60 ft. Nuku-levu ("covered with trees") Nuetadas it. We ca
6. Nukumbasanga Reef 16 17 S. 179 15 We 2851 [Circuler reef enclosing: a) Nukumbasanga I. (70 fteto treetops)
Nukumbalate I. (60 ft.to treetops) ]
7. Nggele-levu Lagoon 1605 Se 179 LO) We 2851 [Atoll-like reef, on or near which are: Taulalia I. (30-ft. to treetops) Tainimbeka I. 40" " Neele-Levu Ts 900M my]
8. Vatauua Island 15 57 Se 179 24 We [90 ft.to treetops ] 2381
[Near atolls: Mbukatatanoa or Argo Reef has the reef structure of an atoll, but instead of sand islets on the reef there are two piles of rock, Vanua Masi and Bacon Island, in the lagoon.
Reid Reef is an atoll-like, circular feef containing three small, rocky islets: Latei Viti, Latei Tonga, and Booby Rock.
Vekai Rock is a reef rock on the edge of a circular reef, 2 ie in diameter, at 17933! §., 178°50! W..
Two of the three Nukutolu Islands (LOTT TS see We) are low, the third of raised reef material. ] ie
Le WEST OF FIGT TO CORAL SEA (south of one beens)
1. Reef Islands 13.55 8. 16" 33 B. \ | | 2877 Rowa Island [50 fte to treetops | inn Sanna Island (Iede Sable) [50 fte]
2. Conway Reef 21 45.S. 17203 Be [Sand cay, 6 £6.) vege 3e. Nokanhui Reef 22 45 S. 167 34 E. [2 sand cays: 2871
(Hokanhiui ) Ana and Ami] 18...
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes H.0.
No. (Alternetive names) ae bani Chart (L. FIJI TO CORAL SBA, south of Solomon Ise conte) 4, Uvea Atoll 20 35 S. E66 30 EB. Classed as an 2230 atoll, possibly raised. 5. Beautemps-Reaupre Atoll 20 24 S. 166 10 &. 2200 (Heo eo) 6. Petrie Reef 18.27 Se 164 20 BE. (Land 20 ft.) 2027 (Betsy Reef) 7. Dtkntrecastesux Reef 18 29 S163 07 E. (Palms,67 ft)» 2027 Suprise I., Fabre I., Le Leizour I. 8. Huon Island [& Lagoon] LS. 0S Sepl62 58. Bi 2027
9. Bampton Reefs North Bampton Reef:
Renard Island 19 14 S. 159 00 &. [A0; Pts ] Southeast Bampton Reef 19 08 S. 158 40 E. PLT fted 10. South Bellona Reef eae be oe. uo ene [LO feesend T.t 2008 11. Middle Bellona Reef 21 24S. 158 518. [6 ft. cay] ZOpg 12. Chesterfield Reefs 2002 Auchorage Islets LO! BA) So V58n29. Bey [38 Lte] Loop Islet [a2 Lal Passage (Bennet) I. [Ali Pte] Long Island 19 53 G6 15819 E. [25 ft,] 13. Avon Isles Ug Se oe 158 15 Be [LT Pee 2002 14. Mellish Reef Herald Bacon Island PF Aste LoS oe Be tte 2002 15. Keen Reef aL aes. 255 45 E. [iG fe. aay] 2002 16. Cato Reef & Island 26 1556 865 32 E, [Lo £t,,] 2602 17. Wreck Reef 22 11 Sev 1550200 Be [lB 012 ft.) 2002 18. Frederick Reef 20958.8.,154 23 BE. [2 cays,’ 5 ft] 2002 19. Saumarez Reefs 20 45 Se 153 40 EB. [2 cays, 8 ft.] 2002 20. Marion Reef 19 06 S. 152 24 E. [3 cays,5-10 ft.] 2567 Carola Cay, Second Cay, Paget Cay 21. Lihon Reef 17 08"S. 152° 07 B. [6 cays,6-19 ft.] 2941 22- Diamond Islets 17 26 S. 150 59 E. 2941 23. Tregrosse Islets 17 43 S. 150 43 Be [2 small islets] 2941 24. Coringa Islets 16 57 S. 149 58 BE. [2 islets: 3568 Chilcott Islet 26 ft.to brushtop ]} Southwest Islet 44 ft.to brushtop] 25. Herald Cays 16 56 S. 149 13 BE. [2 islets:15-23 ft]2942 26. Magdelaine Cays 16 36 S. 150 20 EB [25 ft.to brushtop]2942 27. Willis Islets j L625 So L50 OOMRs [iS -ishets: 2002 Willis, Mid and North Islets 19-22 to brushtop] —
[Note Middleton Reef and Elizabeth Reef are sunken atolls, ‘hs 19.
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes H.O. Ne. (Alternative names) Ont ial Chart
M. North of the SOLOMON ISLANDS
1. Lord Howe Islands 5) 0 Sie) 29) SO) Be 2919 or Ontong Java * (Luangiua, Leueneuwa) [1 of the islets]
2¢ Nukumanu group 4 $2°8. 159 26 E. Os 2899 (Tasman Is.)
3. Tanu atell [Tauu on chart] 4 50 S. 154 24 B. 2896
(iarqueen Is.)
4, Kilinaileu Islands 4°44 'S. 150 24 Be ’ 2896
(Carteret Is.)
5. Nukuria or Nuguria Islands 3 20 S. 154 40 E. ‘[2 atoll reefs] 2943 (Abgaris or Abgarris atoll)
[Note *: Lerd Hewe generally is given preference over Ontong Java, but should not be confused with other islands of the same name in the Benks group and east of Australia.
Roneadsr (Candelaria) 6° 13' §., 188° 20! B., is a circular atoll reef, but awash, without land other than rocks on the reef. ]
Mt. LOUISIADE Archipelage
[Note: There are numerous small, atoll-like reefs in this area, but the majority seem to make up a barrier reef around Tagula and adjacent high islands. The following may qualify as "atoilss"
1. Bramble Haven 1 14S. 152 008. 2950 2. Long Reef TY PES. Lol) 45, e5 2950 3. Redlick Islet 1O,55 8.4152) 33 Be 2950 4. Conflict Reef 10,45 S. 151 45 BE. “outs 5. Gallows Reef HOVE Se L5l) LOB. (2 islete) one 2950
sunken atoll rim.]
N. ADMIRALTY Islands and westward. *
l. Tong Islands : 2.03.8. 147 45 BE. BA.3832 (San Rafael I.) i
2. Papialou Islands 2 42 -S. 147 24 Be BA. 3832 (Hayrick, Heuschauber ) x
3. Alim Island _ 25S. aor ey BA .3832
mo" (Ria zabeth le)
4. Johnston Islands * 296". 147 05 me | BA. 3832
5. Purdy Islands 253 S. 146 20 E. (4 islets) BA.3832
(Nager Is.)
[* Nete: Hermit Islands are a "Truk type" group of high islands surrounded by an atoll-like barrier reef. Doppel (Sherburne) Reef, Kreis (Circular) Reef, and the Whirlwind Reefs are all sunken atolls, without permanent dry land. Ottilien Reefs consist of four reefs
which make up an atell-like proup, with a sand cay on the western reef. Other reef islands, such as Los Reyes, Pak, San Miguel Islands, and St. Andrews Islands, seem to be of raised reef formation. ]
206
Key Accepted name
Latitude Lat !
No. (Alternative names) (ii. ADMIRALTY ISLANDS cont.)
6. Sabben Islands ae Aa Se
7. Palewat Islands 1 56 S.
8. Western islets 2.13 Se
9. Kaniet Islands 0'55) Ss
(Anchorite Ise) 10. Sae Islands O 46 S. (Commerson Is.) [Nosell-17 make up the NINIGO group] 11. Heina atoll 10, &. 12. Pelleluhu or TOS oe Pelleluch atoll
13. Ninigo atoll 2°25 Se (L'Echiquier )
14. Sama "group" 1 24S.
15. Sumasuma or 440288 Ss Samusamu Island
16. Awin and Maletin Islands 1 38 S.
17. Liot Island 1 24 Se
18. Manu Islend ie SS (Allison I.)
19. Aua Island L 28 Sis (Durour )
20. Wuwulu Island du 43 Se (Maty Ie)
21. Asia Islands Li 05. Ne
P. INDONESIA [former East Indies]
[Notes
itude
ie)
f
146 146
146 145
145
144 144
144
144 144
144 144
143
143
142
131
15
Ee Ke
Be Be
Be
Re
Note: H.De Chart
Bxtensive reef BA.3832 3 low islets BA.5832
Low islet BA 5832 5 islets BA .,3832 2 islets BA.3832 6 islets 2969
12 islets 2969 all on E.side
28 islets 2969 3 islets 2969 1 islet 2969 2 islets 2969 1 islet 2969
Flat islet BA .5832 120 ft. treetops
may be raised 5A-d83z2 May be raised BA»35832
3 low islets 3003
Atolls and raised coral islands in this area are listed by
J.F.H,Umbgrove (Bulletin, Geological Society of America, 58 (8):
729-778, Nuge 1947)6
Although he distriguishes "raised atolls" and
"almost atolls" from others, the same symbol is used for surface atolls and sunken atolls, and several are marked with a query. From available data it is difficult to determine the exact nature of many of the reef formations listed, especially those queried by Umbgrove himself. The following are omitted from this list for the reasons given: Noekwendi (probably one of the Padaido Islands), no data;
Ormsbee (sunken, -9 fathoms); Aurora (sunken, -7 fathoms); another, unnamed drowned atoll (-13 fathoms) between these two; Gisser, Goram, and Watoe [Watu] Bela, SE of Ceram (all seem to have closely associa- ted high islands); Kabia, if the same as Kakabia or Baars Island
[6° 54! S., 122° 13! E.,] (raised, listed as having an elevation of 125 feet); Pasir Tengah and "East Atoll" [in the Gulf of Tomini,
21.
(Be
INDONESIA continued)
Celebes](lie in close proximity to the high Togran Islands); of the Sibutu group [north of Borneo] only one is of true atoll formation, that to the west being submerged and to the east, raised; various other reef islands, such as Amboengi and the Little Paternoster Islands [off the southeast curve of Borneo], and the fhousand Islands (including Dapur and Edam Islands) in the Bay of Batavia [north coast of Java] lie on platforms adjacent to high land masses. |
1.
Ze
Se 4.
De
10. ll.
12.
13
14
Noekori, Dauwi, Wamsoi and Roeni Islands
Meatij Miarang (Brisbane I., Meati I.)
Gosong Boni
Angelica Shoal (Pasir Lajaran)
Tukang Besi Islands (Toekang Besi)
Karang Keledupa (Ke. Kaledoepa)
Karang Koka Kenti Ole
Tijger [Tiger] Islands (Taka Boné Raté)
Taka Garlarang
Zandbuis Banks (Sadapur )
Paternoster Islands: Pulo Tengah
Kg. Kapoposang Bali Sailoes
Saoedjoeng
Tampoang
Kg. Satoenggoel
POSTILJON Islands [10 and
Sapuka Islands (Sapoeka)
Sabalana Islands (Poeloe Sabalana) Soemanga I. Sabaroe I., ete
Taka Rewataya
(De Bril Bank)
Dewakang Kechil (Laars Island) Dewakang Besar
Kalu Kalukang (Kaloe Kaloekoeang)
H.O. Sebiey OL, Bzak. di. $003 1°20! §. 136°40' &. [Nature & status?] 8 15 §. 128 25 E. [In Sermata Is.] 3002 8 25 S. 12215 E. [Neof Flores Ie] 3002 7 47 §..122 20 8. [Dries in places] $002 [Most of this group 3002 are high islands] 545 §. 123 45 8. [Atoll-like, high ?] 604 §. 124 23 &. [low reef islands?] 5 45 Ss 125-52. Be 6 50 §. 12110 E. [Islets scattered 3046 over intermittant reef] 6 30° S. 121 15) Be . [Exact nature) 3002 7 47 §. 117 08 E. [Also adjacent 3006 Maria Reigersbergen Banks | 7 30 S. 117 20 be .[Several smeii 3006 islets on extensive reef complex]. 11] 7 O50 ‘Se Leto ne’ Fs Ww. eroup 3006 650 §. 119 50 E. ([N.E. group] 3006 6 05 §s. 118 54 E. #£[Sunken atoll ? 3045 light on SW edge] 5 26. S. 118 22 EB. 3045 Suen is) 3045
226
117.35
He
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes H.O- No. (Alternative names) on lei Chart
(P. INDONESIA continued) 15. Muaras Reef (Moearas) 1 50 WN. 118 55 B. 3044
Q. NORTHWEST OF AUSTRALIA
[All of the reefs immediately off the northwestern coast of Australia lie on the continental shelf. The majority are within the 100 fathom line. Imperiecuse Reef, Clerke Reef, Scott Reef and Cartier Islet lie outside the 100 fathom line, but are on the outer edge of the shelf. Despite this fact, they are included here because of their similarity to "atolls." Mermaid Reef, although of atoll form, has no dry land. Cocos-Keeling Islands are the only true atolls in this area. ]
1. Imperieuse Reef Ip°se" 8. G1e°Soe ny « senayinlse fee] +8420
2. Clerke Reef M7 25 Se 119 20 EB. \poiedeajescrs) 3420
3. Scott Reef 1A OS, Beek BO + Ay Peete rel “seks
4. Cartier Islet 12 32 S. 123 33 E. [Small islet, 4 ft.3419 on small reef]
5. Cocos-Keeling Islands 1210 §. 96 50 E. [Two atolls] 3109
Cocos atoll North Keeling atoll
[Note: Pelsart [in Houtman's Abrolhos, 28956! S., 113°59' &.] is not an atoll, but consists of islets in lagoon shape on the edge of the continental shelf. ]
R. LACCADIVE ISLANDS [North to South] 1590
1. Cherbaniani Reef 12 18 Ne. 71 54 E. [2 sand cays]
Beleapani Reef
2. Byramgore Reef ID) 50’ Ne. 7 54 EB. [No dry land areas ?] Chereapani Reef
3. Chetlat Island 11 42 Ne 72 42 Ee [Single islet]
4. Bitra Reef 1) Ser Net Fe LOE. [Tree Ie, trees 55 ft.]
5. Kiltan Island 1) 29 W. 75 00 &. [Small islet]
6. Kardamat (Cardamum) I. 11 13 Ne 72 47 Be [Treetops 85 ft.]
7.e Peremul Par PIS UO! Nie Fe 04 Be [Sand cay, 4 fte]
8. Ameni (Amini) Island Ta OF Wer 72° 45 Ee [Islet and sand cay]
9. Aucutta or Agatti Island 10 51 N. 72 11 &E. [4 small islands; Kalputi I., Pirli I. 80 ft.to treetops ] Tinnagara I.,Bunngara I. 10 56 N. 72 19 E. [on one reef patch]
10. Androth Island 10 50 Ne: 73 41 EB. [Small, narrow islet]
ll. Kavaratti Island 10 33 Ne 72 38 Ee [Treetops 90 ft.]
12. Kalpeni Island 1005". 75 50° Bs [Treetops 84 ft. ] Charia Island ; [2.5 mie to NNE]
13. Suheli Par 10 04 Ne. 72 17 E. [Oval patch, 3 islets, . palms 90 fte] (Nine degree channel) Coe
Key Noe (Re 14.
S. MALDIVE ISLANDS (Double line of atolls, north to south)
l. Ze
Se
Hw
12.
13.
bw on e
16.
17. 18. 19.
206
Zl.
2e60
Accepted Name (Alternative names)
LACCADIVE Islands continued) Minikoi or Minicoy (Bight degree channel)
Thvandiffulu atoll Ji 02 Ne 72
Tiladumati atoll 6.15 Ne 735 (Tilla dou Matte) [Nepart] . Milademmedulu atoll [Separt] (Milla dou Madou)
Malcolm or Makaenudu atoll 6 18 N.72 North Malosmadulu atoll 5 $5 Ne 72 (Moresly channel) South Malosmadulu atoll (Mahlos Mahdoo) Northern part 5 20 Ne 72 Southern part 5 10 Ne 72 Horsburgh atoll 4 52 Ne 72 Fadiffolu atoll 5 25 Ne 73 Gaha Faro [Island] 4 45 Ne 73 Male atoll 4 25 Ne 73
[Residence of Sultan and seat of government]
(Wadu Channel)
South Male atoll 5 57 Ne 73 Toddu Island 425 Ne 72 Rasdu atoll 418 Ne 72 Ari atoll 5 50 Ne 72 Nilandu (Nillandoo) atoll
Northern part 3 La Ne Fe
Southern part 248 Ne 72 'Webidu (Phaleedoo) atoll 3 30 N. 73 Wataru Reef 5 15 Ne 73 Mulaku (Moluque) atoll 3 00: Ne 75 Kolomadulu atoll 225 Ne 73 Haddummati atoll as
(One and Half degree Channel).
Suvadiva atoll O 30‘N. 73 (Huvadu, Suadiva)
Fua Malaku Island OAT Se 73 (Phoowa Moloku) ah
Addu atoll 0 38 S. 73 (Addoo)
24.
Ba Ne Foie
Latitude Longitude oO t ie) t
8 30 Ne 73 00 Ee
55 Be
05
355 55
50
20 o7 58 50
26
10
Be
Be BE.
Be Be
Be
He
He
nearly continuous
‘other islets en
Notes H.O.
Chart 1590
5661,1591 [About 17 islets] 5661
[Over 130 islets 5661 -and "rings" [3 small islets] 5661
[80 islets & rings]5661
[2 miles wide]
[12 islets & rings]5661 [62 islate & rings]
[4 islets on 566%
rim]
[45 islets & rings]5661
[E.eend smaiih atoll ]5664
[96 islets & rings]5664 5662
[2.3 mi.wide]
[31 circular reefs ]5662 [isolated islet]
[3 islets,2 reefs] 5662 [150 reef patches] 5662
[48 reef rings] 5662 [56 reef rings]
[75 reef rings] 5662 [2 smal? islets] 5662 [70 reef patches] 5662
[25 rings & islets ]5662
[Isdu, Gang, and 3 5662 5663 nearly continueus reef]
[84: closely S663 spaced patches]
[Islet,’ fringing’ 5663
reef |. :
[7 islets on 5663
2 curved reef patches]
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes H.O- No. (Alternative names) ot aes Chart
T. CHAGOS Archipelago [A complex of atoll reefs, some with islets,
others completely sunken rings.] Br.3,4,3869 1. Peros Banhos 5120S. 71 50 Ee [33 islets] 3869 Tle de Coin [settlement] 2. Salomen Islends [pear-shaped atoll] 3867 Bodden Island [at S.point] 3. Nelsons Island 5 41 S. 72 20 E. [on N.side of a 3869 sunken atoll] 4. Great Chagos Bank [has the following three groups of islets: ] 3869 Three Brothers Gy lO. S.n 7s Sor B [3 small islets] Eagle Islets 6 10 Ss. 71 21 E. L acksves y Danger Island 6 22 S. 71 16 E. [40 ft. high.] 5. Egmont [atoll] [6 small islets] 3869 6. Diego Garcia 7 20 Ss 72 25 E. [wedge-shaped lagoon 3868
enclosed by land rim]
U. WESTERN INDIAN OCEAN
1. Cargados Carajos Shoals 16 30 S. 59 30 E. [6 islands: ] 3864 Albatross, North, South, Siren, Pearl, Frigate “2. Coco Reef 16°25 to 16 50 S. [6 islands: ] 3864 Ile Raphael, Avocare, Mapare, Verrange, Coco Ise [2] 3. Agalega Islands 10 25 S. 56 40 E. [2 islets) 3864 4, Ile Tromelin 15 62 S. 54 25 8. [15 ft.] 1881,3864
Tromelin I.)
SEYCHELLES group [Most of this group are high islands; scattered
| along a barrier=-like reef are the following: (5 to 8) 2809
5. Bird Island 343. 8..55 iecms [58 ; £t8): 3851
(Ile Vasches de Mer)
6. Denis (Dennis) Island 3 48 S. 55 40 E. [30 ft.] 2809
7 Platte Island 5 55 S. 5 20 Ee 2809
8. Coetivy Island 7 06 Ss 5p 15 Be [40 ft.] 2809
AMIRANTE Islands [9 to 20]
9. "Africa Islands" 4 52 S. 53 20 Ee [2 islets,10 ft.] 2809 10. Eagle Island 5 08'S. 55 15 Es [Treetops,50 ft.e] 2809 11. D'Arros Island 5 2p. Ss 5a Lo Be [Treetops 86 ft.] 3851 12. SteJospeh Islands 5) 26" Se,5a,20.E. . [Circular reef with: 3851
Resource [40 ft.], Fourquet [40 ft.], SteJoseph [treetops 80 ft.], Benjamin [10 ft.], Cascassage (10 ft], Poule [10 ft.] Pelican [20 ft.], Chien Islet [20 ft.]
13. Desroches Island 5) 40)Se5 53° 40. Re [Treetops,120 ft.]3851 (Amirante)
14. Poivre Islands 5°45 S03) 56V1L5 -B. [2iastecs! VSirb. 73851
15. Etoile Cay 5 54 Se, 53 15 He [ho ft. 3851
256
Key Accepted Name Latitude Longitude Notes HAO.
Noe (Alternative names) of Oia t Chart (U. WESTERN INDIAN OCEAN continued) 16. Boudeuse Cay 6105 S.'52" 50" he [eS tts. ] 2809, 3851 17. Marie Louse Island 6° 11) S.° 53',09 B. [Treetops 90 ft] 2809 18. Ile des Noeufs O1 LSS. 5o\.05) ts [18 £6. | 2809 19. Alphonse Island 7 01S. 52 45 B. [Inhabited] 2809 20. [Atoll-like reef, center] 7105S. 52 45 EB. [2 islets: ] 2869 Bijoutier Island 7 04S. 52 45 E. [Coconut palms ] San Francoise Island 7 1h S. 52 4d E. 21. Farquhar group 10 10 Ss. 51 08 B. [Elliptical reef with: ]3861 North Ie, South Ie, Goelette I. and other small islets. 22. Cerf Islands Reef [24 x 5 miles, with:] 3851
Wizard Reef 8 50 S. 5103 BE. ([awash, rocks uncovered] Providence Island 94 4S... 5d O02 Be [50 fte, village] ._ §t.ePierre Island 9120'S. 50 45) he [40 ft., coconuts } Cerf Island 9 32S. 51 00 B/ [7 small islets] 25e Isles Glorieyses 11 33 S. 47 20 B. ‘[Reed, 10 miedia. BA. 724 (Glorioso Islands) with: ] Ile du Lise or Lys bS5) ft.) Verte Rocks & South Rocks po £tel Isle Gloriecuse { 1 mi.esquare] BA.) Weaene Gralana 10 06 S. 47 45 RB. [45 ft] 3861 25- Cosmoledo group 9 42 S. 47 35 Ee [7 islets around 3861 Menai [40 ft.], North-Is.{2], elliptical lagoon] Polyte [35 ft.], Wizard [55 ft.], Pogodg [20 ft.], South [25 fx. | 26. Aldabra atoll 9 25 Se 46 22 E. [Nearly continuous 3861 West I. (Ile Picard) land surrounds lagoon; Polymnie I. [70 ft. clumps] 3 channels; 4 islets on Middle (Malabar) I. [60 ft.] rim, 2 in lagoon]
South I. [largest, 70 ftg] Euphrates (Ile Esprit) [40 ft.] Coconut I. (Ile Michel) [70 ft] [24 the lagoon]
V. CARIBBEAN Sea [Counterclockwise from north]
| [Note: It has been stated that there are no true "atolls" in the . Caribbean 'Sea or Gulf of Mexico; the following are coral cr reef : islands outside the 100 fathom line on the continental shelf. ]
1. Hogsty Reefs 21 41 Ne 73 49 We [Reef-enclosed lagoon 2805 ‘Los Corrales with 2 sand cays] 2. Mira-por-vos Islets 22 05 Ne 74 30 W. ([Kite-shaped shoal 2806 ; ca ees akc! Cayenne occas) | 3. Cay Sal Bank 24 - N. 80 ~W. ([Bank, 60x35 mie 944,1290 Cay Sal [30 ft], Elbow Cay [30 fte] = = cays around edge] 2624
Water Cays, Muertos Cays, Dog Rocks [30 fte], < -} Damas Cays, Anguila Isles [40-50 fte]
[On BANCO CAMPECHE, north of Yucatan, within 100 fathom line, but individually isolated, are the following, 4 to 8.]
4. Arrecife Alacran 22 30 Ne 89 42 We [Ellictical reef, no 966 (Alacran Reef) marked lagoon, 5 islets]1233,1240 26.6
Key Accepted name Latitude Longitude Notes H.O. OF o ft
Ne. (Alternative names) Chart ! (V. CARIBBEAN Sea continued) i 5. Cayo Arenas 22 O7 Ne 91 24 W. [2 reef patches, cays] 1233 | )Arebas Cay) : 6. Cayo Nuevo 21 40 Ne. 92 10 W. ee 2056 7.e Los Triangulos 20 55 Ne 92 13 We. [2 reef patches, 1235 Cayo Este [24 ft.], East and West each with los cays] 8. Cayos Arcas (Arcas Cays) 20 12 W. 91 58 We [Reef with 3 cays,21'] 1234 |-9.'Chinchorro Bank 18 35 Ne 87 20 W. [Nearly continuous 1072 (Banco Chinchorro) reef, 3 cays, 56! treetops] - Turneffe Islands [Not sufficiently surveyed to determine form] 10. Lighthouse Reef 17 20 Ne. 87 30 W. [Atoll-like,5 cays]1120,1498 11. Glover Reef 16 50 Ne. 87 50 W. [Sunken atoll-~like; 1120 5 small cays] 12. Swan Islands 17 25 Ne 83 50 We [up to 60 ft.] 5170 13. Caratasca Cays 15 56 Ne 83 16 W. 5381 | 14. Becerro Cay 15 55 Ne 83 15 We 5381 . 15. Vivario Bank - 15 33 Ne 83 20 We 5381 |
|16. Albuquerque Cays 12 10 N. 81 51 W. [2 cays on shoal] 2077
17. Courtow Cays + 12 24 Ne 81 28 W. [3 cays on shoal] 2077
18. Roncador Bank 13 32 Ne 80 02 We. [cay,13 ft. on shoal 1374
, surrounding lagoon]
/19. Serrana Bank 14 22 Ne. 8018 W. [2 lagoons,6 cays] 1374 ‘i 20. Quita Sueno Bank 14 20 Ne 8115 W. [1 cay on bank] 945 ‘ 21. Serranilla Bank 15 50 Ne 79 55 We. [4 cays on shoal] 1489 226 Bajo Nuevo 15 52 Ne 78 39 We [2 atoll-like reefs, 1488
with 1 cay] 256 Pedro Bank 17 - Ne 78 -W. [4 cays; not atoll- 5350 like; 100x60 mie] | 24. Morant Cays 17 20 Ne 76 00 We 708 i 25. Albatross Bank 17 40 N. 75 45 W. ([Cays 72] 708 '-26. Islas des Aves 12 - N. 67 30 W. 6563 or Aves Island W. ATLANTIC OCEAN 1. Rocas Reef 5 52 S. 33 49 E. [Small atoll, oar or Atol das Rocas with 2 islets]
[135 miles NE of Cabo Calcankar, Brazil]
Abaiang Island Abaririnuga Abemama Island Abgaris, Abgarris Actaeon Islands Addeo, Addu atoll Admiralty Islands Adventure Island African Islands Agalega Islands Aeatti Island ~~ Ahe Island | Ahrno Island Ahunui Island Ailinginae atoll
Ailinglapalap atoll
Ailu atoll
Ailuk atoll - Airinginae To Airingurapurapu To Airukku To Aitupu Island Akiaki Island Alacran, Arrecife Albatross Bank Albatross Island Albuquerque Cays Aldabra atoll
Alexander, Grand Duke,I. Del5 |
Alim Island Allison Island Alphonse Island Amanu Island Amboengi
Ameni Island . Amirante Island Amirante Islands
Amphitrite Islands
“Anaa Island Anangai Anchorage Islets Anchorite Islands Andema
» Androth Island
Angatau Island Angegul
Angelica Shoal Anguila Isles Aninima
Anne Island
Ant atoll, Anto To Anu-anuroro Island
Anu-anurunga Island
Apaiang Island
ALPHABETICAL INDEX
@
Dagw = ¢e Om On
72
i yo ee ~
BelsBezd He2s He20 Hel1O0 Held
: Be56
ee ® WN ow
QWWaa sooo e.h.°8 e HPRrEN NPE Oop CPt Oo rep
28.
Apamama Island Apataki Island Apia Island Arachecheeff Island Arakcheeff Islands Arakchev Island Aranuka Island fratika Island Arcas, Cayos Archangel {Island). Arceifos
Arenas, Cayo
Argo Reef
Ari atoll
Arno atoll
Arorae, Arorai Island |
Arrecife Alacran Arrowsmith oa Aruno
. Arutua Island
Asia Islands Astove Island Atafu Island Atol das Rocas Aua Island
| Auarua Island ....
Aucutta Island
-Auotu [Island] Aur atoll,Aurh erage - Auripik
Aurora Auru To
- Aurupig
Australia, NW of Aves Island Aves, Islas des Avocare Island Avon Isles Awin Islet Baars Island Bacon Island Bajo Nuevo Baker Island Bampton Reefs Banco Campeche
Barclay de Tolley Island
Baring atoll Barrow Island Bass Reeftied Baxotristo Bay of Batavia
Beautemps-Beaupre atoll
Becerro Cay Bedford Island (?)
o @ Pee N
e MAA PrHRORRPHRPNNN ON A PEW
oO oO
os 0@ 6 OQ)
@
PO et eran ore (e) ct (0) ~~
t @
OQ Ww
ee “8 e© © © © © @ © Oreos oaorr e NNN WM pb
Beleapani Reef Rel Bellinghausen Island G5 Bellona Reefs Let. LL Benjamin Islet Uel2 Bennet Island Lel2 Beru Island Ge Betsy Reef Le6 Bijoutier Island U.20 Biker atoll Hel4 Bikini atoll Hedl Bird Tsland BeddsUed Birnie Island De29d Bitra Reef Ret Bligh(s) Island BelO Boddam Island Ted Bonham atoll Hel9 Booby Rack K (note) Bostock Island Ded Boston atoll Hel6 Boudeuse Cay Uel6 Bow Island Bead Bowditch Island De22 Bramble Haven Msl Brisbane Island Pe Brock, Brook Island De6 Brooks Island Het Brown atoll Hed2 Brown Islands He24 Buchanan Islet Ne7 Bunker Island D6 Bunkey Jel6 Bunngara Island Re9 Bur Jed6 Butaritari Island Gel5 Butong Butongang P.14& Byam Martin Island Be2d Byramgore Reef Re2 Byron Island Ged Cadmus Island Bel Calvert Hed Campeche Banco Ve4-8 Candelaria M (note) Canton Island Ded2 Caratasca Cays Vel3 Cargados Carajos Shoals Uel Caribbean Sea Vv Carola Cay Le20 Carlshov Island B262 Caroline Island Del Caroline Islands J Carteret Islands Me4 Cartier Island Qe4 Carysfort Island Bell Cascassage Islet Uel2 Catherine Hecdse6&
296
Cato Island, Reef
Cay Sal Bank Ved Cayo Arenas - Ved Cayo Este Vel Cayo Neuvo Ve6 Cayos Arcas V8 Cerf Island, Reef Ue22 Chagos Archipelago T Chain Island Bed6 Charia Island Rel2 Charlotte Island Gel3 Charlotte, Queen Be2l Cherbanieni Reef Rel Chereapani Reef Re2 Chesterfield Reefs Lel2 Chetlat Island Red Chien Islet Uel2 Chilcott Islet Le24 Chinchorro Bank Ved Christmas Island De7 Circular Reef N (note) Cladius Island Bee Clarence, Duke of, Island D.e23 Ciermont de Tonnere Ie Bel7 Clermont-Tonnerre [Island] Bel7 Clerk Island Ged Clerke Island Bel9 Clerke Reef Qe2 Clipperton Island Ael Cockburn Island BeZ Coco Islands, Reef Used Coconut Island Ue26 Cocos=-Keeling Islands Qed Codopuei J058 Coetivy Island Ue8 Commerson Islands BelO Conflict Reef M'.4 Constantine Je8 Conway Reef Le2 Cook Island Gel2 Cook Islands Dy « Cook Lagoon Be2d Coquille Hel9, ,Je20 Coral Island C6 Coral Sea L Coralles, Los Vel Coringa Islets Le24 Cornwallis Island Bedd Cosmoledo group Ue2d Cotar Island Ce7 Count Haiden Island He8 Courtown Cays Vel? Crescent Island het Croker Island Bed4 Cumberland Island Be27 Cure Island Bed Current Island Jed6
Damas Cays
Danger Island Denger Islands Daniel Island Depur
D*Arros Island Dawhaida Island Dawson
Deans Island
De Bril Bank
De Cata
Denis, Dennis Island D'Entrecasteaux Reef De Peyster Island Desroches Island Dewakang Besar Dewalang Kechil Diamend Islets Diego Gardia Djabwat Island Djaluit
Djemo
Deg Island
Dog Rocks
Dopvel Reef Doubtful Island Douglas Reef Drummond Island Ducie Island
Duke of Clarence Island Duke of Gloucester Is.
Duke of York Island Dunkin
Duperrey, Duperry dt*Urville-Insel Durour
Ragle Island
Eagle Islands
Hast atoll
East Faiu, East Fayu Ie
Bauripik atoll Eben atoll Hdam**.:+ + Beg Island Egmont atdll Egmont Island Elat, Hlath EHlato atolls Blbow Cay Eliza Island Blizabeth atoll
Elizabeth Island H.1l9
BHlizabeth Reef Bllice atoll Bllice Islands Elmore atoll
sNed ©
L (note) Fed
F
He20
306
Endabi
Enderbury Island Enderby
Enaidok HWniwetakku To Bniwetok atoll Epon -To Equetorial Islands Erato To
Erikub atoll Erippu To Brukuppu To Eschoitz, Eschscholtz Esprit, Ile
Este, Cayo
Etal atoll, Etaru To Etoile Cay Euphrates Isiand Faaite Island Fabre Island Badiffclu atoll Faieu
Fais
Faiu [see East ~, West ~]
Faiyao
Fakaafo Island Faxahina Island Fakacfu Island Fakarave. atoll Faliau
Faloc
Faneawa Island Fananou Fangahina Island Fangatau Island Fangataufa Island Fanning Island
Faraulep, Faraulip atoll
Farquhar group Farroilap, Fattoilap
Fayu [see East -. West -
Felidu atoll Fenua Iti
Fenua Ura
raja
Fiji to Coral Sea Flint Island Foraulep, Foroilap Four Crowns
Four Facardins Fourquet Islet Francis Island Fraser
Frederick Reef Freewill Islands Frigate Island
Fua Mulaku Island Fugitive Island Funafuti Furaarappu To Furneaux Island Furukku To Gaferut Island Gaha Faro [Island] Gallows Reef
Gang Islet Gardner Island Gaspar Rico
Gente Hermosa Gilbert Islands Gisser Gicrieuses, Isles Gloricso Islands Gloucester Island
Se2l Ceo2 Fed Je27 Bed9 Je28 J 026 $8 Mted $.19 De27 Held De2l G
P (note) Ue2ds Ue2d Be26
Gloucester, Buke of, Is.eB.13-15
Glover Reef Goelette Island Good Hope Island Goram
Gcsong Boni
Grand Duke Alexander I.
Great Chagos Bank Greenwich Islands Greig atoll
Grimes Island
Guif of Mexico Gurimesu To Gurinitti To Haddumati atoll Halcyon Island Hall Island
Hall Islands
Hao Island Haraiki Island Hariri Island Harp Island Harvest
Heug
Heuschauber Hawaiian Islands Hayrick Islands Hagemeister Island Heina atoll
Helato
Helen Reef
Henauke Island Henderville Island Heo Island
Herald Beacon Island Herald Cays Hereheretue Island Heren Sho
Vell Ue2l
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Heretua [Island] Hermit Islands Hervey Islands Hikueru Island Hiti Island
Hog Island
Hogsty Reef
Hok
Hokanhiui Reef Holt Island Honden Island Hopper Island Horsburgh atoll Hoten Rif
Hough
Houtman'ts Abrolhos Howe Island Howlend Island Hudson Island Huiyao
Hull Island Humphrey Island Hunter Island Huon Island, lagoon Huraarappu To Hurd Island Hurukku To
Huvadu atoll Ibbetson
Ifalik atoll Ifalouk, Ifaluk Ifelug, Ifekuk Ihvandiffulu atoll Ile de Coin
Ile de Sable
Ile des Noeufs
Ile du Lise, Lys Tle Esprit
Tle Michel
Ile Picard
Ile Raphael
Ile Tromelin
Ile Vaches de Mer Imperieuse Reef Independence Island Indian Ocean, Bastern Indian Ocean, Western Indonesia
Isdu Islet
Isles Gés Aves Iles Glorieuses Iuripik
Jabwot Island Jaluit atoll
Japan Fayu
Jervis Island
e e Ne)
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WOAH APUWAREPARAHEH
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Jemo Island Jennings Island Jervis Island
Joan de Nova Johnston Island Johnston Islands Kabeneylon
Kabia
Kadogubi
Kajangle, Kajanguru
Kakabia
Kaledoepa, Karang Kaloe Kalukuang Kalpeni Island Kalvouti Island
Kalu Kalukuang Kalukuang, Kalu, Kaloe Kama Islands
Keniet Islands Kapen-Mailang Kapingamarangi atoll Kapoposang Bali, Kg. Karang Kaledoepa | Kardamat Island ~ Karlshoff Island Kata
Katharine
Katiu Island Kaukura atoll
Kauehi Island Kavaratti Island Kaven, Kawen Kayangel Islands Kazuanguru Keeling atoll
Keen Reef
Kemins Island
Kenti Ole . Kentschikow
e e nr a (4
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PUrPrOUUMAWWOT sd Vansant vIaaVyyoaoDseesoad vue @ “No
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Kg. [Karang] (see 2nd word)
Kili Island Kilinailau Islands Kiltan Island Kimisisima Shoto Kingman Reef King's Island
Kird To
Knox Island Kodgubi
Koka, Karang Kolomadulu atoll Kornikoff Island Koutousoff Island Kreis Reef Krusenstern Island Kuezyerin To
Hel8
ee
Kunto. Shoto Ey Kuop atoll Kurateke Island Kure Island
Kuria Island
Kurru To
Kutusov, Kutusow Kwajalein atoll Kwedjelin
Laars Island Laccadive Islands Lae. atoll
Lagoon Island
La Harpe Island
Lai atoll
Lambert
Lemorsu
Lamoliaur Ulu, Lamoliork Lamotrek atoll Lamuniur
Lemureck, Lamurrec Lancier Island Laskar Island Lassion Island Latei Tonga
Latei Viti
Laysan Island Lazareff Island L'Echiquier
Le Leizour Island Leueneuwa
Lib Island | Lighthouse Reef Lihon Reef
Likieb, Likiep atoll Liot Island
Lip Island
Lise, Ile du Lisianski, Lisiansky I. Little Makin Island Little Paternoster Is. Livingston
Long Island
Long Reef
Loop Island L'Orange Island Lord Hood(s) Island Lord Hove Island Lord Howe Islands Lord North Island Losap atoll
Los Corrales
Los Martires
Los Reyes
Los Triangulos
Los Valientes
3058 Joell Vel Jel? N (note) Vel Jed
Mertha Island
Lossop-Inseln, Louasaope Jell Louisiade Archipelago Mf? ) Low Islands B Loyalty Islands L Luengiua Mel Luguen Je18 Lukeisel Jell Lukunor atoll Je9b Lukunor~gruppe Je9 Lumuliur Jedd Lutke Island 9 dese, bo Lydia H.26,J020 Lynx Island Fev Lys, Isle du Ue23 Macaskill Jel Mackenzie Islands Jed2 Madjuro Island Hed Magdelaine Cays Le26 Meahlos \lahdoo 80d Maiana Island Gell Majuro atoll Hed Makaenudu atoll Sed Makarama J08 Makemo Island Be49 Makin Island Ge15,16 Makin Meang G16 “Malabar Island Ue2é Malcom atoll Sed Walden, Maldon Island Ded Maldive Islands 3. Male atoll, Island $09 Maletin Island ae Meleelab, Maloelap atoll Hed Malosmadulu atolls 84,5 Manahiki Island Del4 Mangorongoro Island Deld Menihi Island Bevl Menihiki Island Del4 Menra Island De2d Manu Island Nel8 Manuae Island Del2 Manuhangi Island Beal Mapare Island Ue2 Mapia atoll J 40 Marakei Ie, Maraki Ie Gel4 Marcus Island ewe Margaret Island Beld Margaretta He26 Maria Island Bek water Marie Louise Island ar bnt, Marion Reef Lez Meroerappu To Hed Maerokau Island Bede Marqueen Islands Med Marshall Islands ea hed”
336
Maruroa Island Be9 Marutea Island [2] B.8,39 Mary, Mary Balcout Island De32 Massachusetts Island Het Matahiva, Mataiwa Island Be75
Matelotas Jedd Matilda Islend Be9 Matthew Island Gel4 Me.turei-vavao Bed Maty Island Ne20 Maure. Island Cet Mbukatatanoa Recf K (note) McAskill Jel McKean Island D238 Meaty Miarang Ped Medjit, iejit Island Hell Melbourre Island Bed Meliel dedl Mellish Reef Lel4 Melville Island Bedd Menai Island Ue25 Mendena Island Tel Menschikoff He26 Mereyon To Je29 Merier, Merir Island JedT Mermaid Reef Q (note) Meziti To Hell Mezyuro To Hed Miadi Hell Michaeloff Island Kee Michel, Ile Us26 Mid Islet Le2? Middle Island Ue26 Middle Bellona Reef Lell
Middlebrook Islands Het Middleton Reef
Midway Islands
Milla dou Madou Milladummadulu atoll Mili, Mille, Milli atoll Minami Tori Shima Minerva Reefs Minicoy, Minikoi Minto Island Mira=por-vos Islets Mire, Miri To Mitchell Island Mobidie Island WMoearas Reef Moerenhout Island Mogal, Mokil atoll wMokiru To
Moller Island
Moluque
Monteverde Monteverdeson's group
=] e Oe
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es NNR PNY NYE RYE Ne
Moore Isle
Jed4b
Mopelia, Mopihaa Islands C.4
Morane Island Morant Cays Moresly channel Morileu Mortlock Islands Mosley Islet Mototokke Shoto
Motu Iti, Motu One
Motutunga Island Mourileu
Muaras Reef Muertos Cay Mulaku atoll Mulgrave Island
Murilo, Muriro Shoto
Murray Islet Musgrave Mus quillo
Myloradowitich Island
Naeger Islands Naiad
Nairea atoll | Nema Island Namo Wamochikku To Nemoliaour MNamolipiafane Namolotou Namoluk atoll Namonefeng Namonuite atoll Namorik atoll Namorukku To Nemotikku To Namouin-atoll Nanouttek
Namu atoll Namurikku To Namurrek ~QNanuuin Shobto Nanomana Island Nanomea Island Nanouki Island Nanuku Reef Nanumanga Island Nanumea Island Napuka Island Narcissus Island Nassau Island Natikku To Nelsons Island emu
Nengonengo Island Netherland Island
Bel Veet $.4/5 Jel3a
S46
Nevil Island New Caledonia New Hebrides
New Nantucket Island
New Year Island New. York Island Negaruangl Reef Ngatik atoll
Ngele-levu Island
Ngelu
Nggele-levu Lagoon Ngiul, Ngoli, Ngolii Ngolog, Ngulu, Ngoly
Ngulu atoll Niambo Island Niau atoll
Nigeri, Nihiru Island
Nikumaroro Nikunau Island
Nilandu, Nillandoo atoll
Ninigo atoll Ninigo group Niulakita Niutao Island Noekori Noekwendi Noeufs, Ile des Nokanhui Reef Nomoi Islands Nomwin atoll
Nonouti, Nonuti Island
Nororutu Island
North Bampton Reef
North Cay
North Island | North Islands Northeast Cay
Northern Cook Islands
North Keeling
North Malosmadulu North Marutea Island Northwest Pacific
Nuevo, Cayo Nugoru To Nuguria Islands Nui Island Nukufetau Nukulaelae Nukulailai Nukulevu Island Nukumanu group
Nukumbalate Island Nukumbasanga I., Reef
Nukunau Island Nukunono Island Nukuoro atoll
J008 L
L Ded3d Hell Deo Jod4a Jed Ke? Jedd Kel
Sees
5035
Jedd Ked
Be64 Be40 Deel Ged S14 Neld Nell-17 Fel
Fe?
Pel
P (note) Ue1l8 Led
Le2t(etce)
Uel,3,9,21
Ue2d Lezo D Qed Se4
Bedd ag
Be6 Jel
Med
Fe6 Pet Fee
FPe2,Ked
Nukusemanu Island Nukutaveke Island Nukutolu Nukutipipi Island Nurakita Island Oaitupu Island Oatafu Island Observatory Cay Ocean Island
Odia atoll
Odjia, Odtis
Oeno Island
Oleai, Oleei, Olie Olimarao, Olimanau Ise Ollap
Olosenga, Olosega Olutei, Olutel Onata Islands
Fed De24 Le2l(ete. ) Hed He20 He7 Aed JeZd SEY) JelZ De2l J024 Jo40
One and Half Degree Chan.S.19/20
Onomerai
Onon
Onotoa Island Oneun, Onoune Ontong Java Oraluk
Ormsbee
Oroluk atoll Orona Island Ororu Shote Ororukku To Osnaburgh Island Otakootaia Otooho Island Otori Jima Ottilien Reef's Ouleai
Ouluthy
Oura Island Padaido Islands Pagenema Paget Cay
Pak
Pakin atoll Polawat Islands Palmerston Island Palmyra Island Paolo
Papialou Islands Papakena Island Paraoa Island Perece Vela Pasir Tengah Passage Island Paternoster Islands Paternoster, Little,Is. Paumotu Islands Peacock Island
Je2d Jol6 Ged Jel6 Mel
J36
P (note) J06
506
Pearl Island Uel Pearl and Hermes Reef Bed Pedder Island He2 Pedro Bank Ve23 Pelelap, Pelelsep Jel Pelican Islet Uel2 Pell Island He2 Pelleluch atoll Nel2 Pelleluhu Nel2 Pelsert Q (note) Penrhyn Island Del3 Peremul Par Re Peros Banhos ys Peru Island Ge6 Pescadore Islands He29 Pescadores J28 Petrie Reef Led Phaleedoo S15 Phillip Island Jedl Phillips Island Be49 Phoebe Island D353 Phoenix Island DedSO0 Phoenix Islands D.25=32 Phoowa Moloku Se2l Picard, Ile Us26 Pigali Je20 Pigerotto To, Pigoualao Je20 Pikaru To Hel4 Pikela, Pikelot Island Je20 Pikiram Je8 Pinaki Island Bs20 Pingarappu To Jel Pingelap, Pingoulap Jel Piri teland Re9 Pitts Island Gel6 Platte Island Ue7 Poeloe Sabalana Pell Pogoda Island Ue25 Poivre Islands Uel4 Pokaakku To Held Pokak atoll Hel5 Pokela Je20 Pollap Jel7 Poloae, Poloat, Polowat Jel8 Polynmie Island Ue26 Polyte Island. . Ue25 Postiljon Islands P.10,11 Poule Islet Uol2 Poulouote Jel8 Pourappu To Jel7 Prince William Henry I. Be28 Prospect Island De9 Providence Island Hed3,Uede Pukapuka (Danger Islands) D.19 Pukapuka Island Be4l Pukaruha Island Bel8 Pul doo
Pulap, Pullop atoll
Jel7 Pulo Anna Islands J 056 Pulo Marier Jed? Puluot Jol8 Pulusuk Island Jel9 Puluwat atoll Jel8. Pur (J256 Purdy Islands Nod © Puru Anna J2d6 Pyghelia Je2d Quatro Coronados Bal4 Queen Charsotte te tend Beal Quiros Isiand De2l Quite Suene Bank V.20 Rae Ts - He24 Rahiroa atoll Bel3 Rakehanga Island De1d Ralik chain f Hel6=33 Rangiroa Island | Be73 Raphael, Ile Us2 Raraka Island Be5d9 Rarcia Tsland BeA7 ‘Rasdu atoll Sel2 Ratak chain Hal-15 Ravahere Island Bedol Raven group Js Reao Island Bel7 Redlick Islet Mted Reef Islands Tope: Reid Island Bedi Reid Reef K (note) Reirson Island Del), Reitoru Island Bedd Rekareka Island Bed8 Remp . Jel6 Renard Island Led Resolution Island Bio: Resource Islet Uel2 Rikieppu To HisiSs,yihe Rimski~Korsakoff Isiands He30 Romanzoff Island Be68,HeT Romanzow, Romanzov He7.-a.: Roncador Ménote) Roncador Bank (Can). ¢ Vel8 Rocas Reef Wel -Rongelab, Rongelap atoll HedO «. Rongerik atoll » He 2d. FF Rongirikku To He29. Rongorappu To He 30 Rose atoll, Island De20 Rosoppu To : Jell Ross Islands He22 Rotcher Island Ge2 Rowa Island Lel
Royalist Island, Is. is eae 15
Rukunoru To
Je9b
366
Rukute. To Jolt Rurick Island Be67 Sabalana Islands Pell Ssbaroe Island Pell Sabben. islands NeS Sable. Isle de Ce Figen Sadapur Pe8 ‘Sae Islands NelO Seliloes Pe9 St.Andrew Island Jedd St.Andrew Islands N (note) St.eAugustine Island Fed SteDavid Islands Je40 St.Jospeh Islands Vela steraui Island Bel6 St.ePierre Island Ue22 SteQuent:in Isiand Bed4 St.Simecn Island Bed? Saken Island Be50 sal, Cay Ved Selomon Islands Tea Sema "group" Nel4 Semarang Island D100 Sanoa, American De20,21 Sanmusamu Island Tels San Andreas Jedd San Bartclome Jel9 Sands Island Cel Sandy Islet Qe1l,2,3 San Francisco Island ‘eal San Francoise Island Ue2z0 San Miguel Archangel Beld San Miguel Islands N (note) Sanna island Lel San Narciso [Island] Bel9 San Pablo Island Beol6é San Rafael Jie light wl Sacedjoeng P.9 Saok Weld Sapoeka, Sapuka Tsiende P10 Saraon, Sarol Jeo Sasaon, Satahual Jeal Sataoan Js9C¢ Sataual, Satavan Je2l Satawal Island Jeal Satawan atoll JeI9Ct Satawan Island Joel Sataon JIC Satoenggoel, Karang Ped Satouwan Je9e Satowal, Satowalairak Jeel Batuwal Jeol Saugk. Jel9 Saumarez Reefs Lel9 ‘Sauugk - Jel9 Schanz atoll He27 Scheug, Schoog, Schoug Jel9
Scilly Islands Scott Reef Searle Island Second Cay Sepper Island Sermata Islands Serrana Bank Serranilla Bank Seteoel, Setoan Seven Islands Seychelles group Sheburne Reef Shukku To Sibutu Islands Simonoff Island Siren Island Six Islands Skiddy
Smyth Island Soou
Soemanga Island 80g
C.5 Qed Bel8 Le20 Fe7 Pee Vlg Ve2l Je2l Jed Ue5=8 N (note) Jel9
P (note) Kel Vel TeS Jel0 Hel5 Je19 P,il Jol9
Solomon Islands, Neof MM
Senesor, Songosor Sonsol, Sonsonorol Sonsorol Islands Sonsoru To
Sooughe Sophia Island
Je36 Je35 Je35 3038 Jel9 Fel
Sorol atoll, Sororu To Jedl
Soug, Souk South Bellona Reef
Jol9 L.10
Southeast Bampton Reef Le9
South Island South Male atoll South Malosmadulu South Marutea Island South Rocks Southwest Islet Souworoff Islands Sove
Speiden Island Starbuck Island Stavers Island Suadiva
Suheli Par
Sumasuma
Suprise Island Suvadiva atoll Suvarov, Suwarow Suvarov, Suwaroff Ise Suwerrow Islands Swains Island Swallow Island
Swen Island Sydenham Island Sydney Island
U.-3,9,21,25,26
S.10 S05 Be8 Ue23 Le24, 25 Del? Jol9 Fe7 Ded Ded $.20 Rel3 Nel5 Le7 S.20 Hel2 Del? Del? De2l “Ded2 Vel2 Ge7 De2d
Syukku To Tabiteuea Island Taenga Island Tagula Island Tahanea Island Taiaro Island Tainimbeka
Taka atoll
Taka Boné Raté Taka Garlarang Takapoto Island Takaroa Island Takume Island Takutea Island Tamanea Island Tamatam, Tametam Tempoang
Tanu
Taongi Island Tapeteuea Island Tapuserang. Taputa Island Taputeuea Island Tarewa Island Teriteri Island Tasman Islands Tatakoto Island Tauere Island Taulalia Island Tchigschagoff Island Teke To
Tekokota Island Teku Island Tematangi Island Temetem
Temo
Tenararo Island Tenarunga Island Tengeh, Pasir Tepoto Island Tetuaroa Island Thornton Island Thousand Islands Three Brothers Thrum Cap
Tiemo To
Tilla dou Matte liger, Tijger Islands Tikahau Island Tikei Island Tiladumati atoll Timo
Timoe Island Tindal
Tinnagera Island Tiokea atoll Toau Island
Jel9 Ge4 Be48 M' (note ) B,o5 Be60 Ke7 Hel2 P.6 P.7 Be70 Be69 B.46 Dell Gee Jel? Ped Med Held Get D8 Be70 Get Gol2 Ge1l5 Me2 Bel9 BedT? Ke? Be55 Hele Be36 Bel4 Bel0 Jel7 He9 Be6 Bet P (note) B.45,53 Co2
=i SS St
SS SS EE SS EE Se Sa aa eae
Tobi Island
Toddu Island Toekang Besi Islands Togobei
Togran Islands Tokelau Islands Tokobe
Tomini, Gulf of
Tong Islands
Tongereva Island jn anes fotiaroa Island. i453. :6
Tracy Island peat Traversey a Tregrosse Islets ..., Triangulos Tromelin Island,, Truk [not an atoll] Tschitschagoff Tuamotu archipelago Tuanake Island Tubai Island Tucker
Tukang Besi
Tureia Island A Turneffe Islands... Tuvuna-i-ra Tuvuna-i-tholo Udjae
Udjelang
Ueito
Ujae atoll
Ujelang atoll
Ulea, Uleai, Ulie
Ulithi atoll, Uluthi.
Umaitia Island
Union Islends [Tokelau] Uotto To Ura atoll Urushi To
“Utirik atoll, Utorokku To
Uvea atoll
Uziran To
Uzyae To
Vaches de Mer, Ile Vahanga Island Vahitahi Island Vairaatea Island Vaitupu Island Vanavana Island Vanua Masi Vatauua Island Vekai Rock Verrange Island
ee eee: Mar Oia tr
Ped
ce)
iss)
es iv) e OH IBID on
2 @e6& © @ , MPwonoromnwv aon
eo
De 2e7e4 He2v
“BETO
Jed2 Held Held Led He33 | He25 . Ue5. Bed Be23 Be 22 Fe5 Bele
ie RiGats)
Ke8
Ke (note
Ue2
386
Verte Rocks Vincennes Island Vivario Bank Vliegen atoll Volunteer Island Vostock, Vostok Island Wadu Channel Wailangilala Island Wain: Island
Wake Island, Wakes Warren Hastings Washington Island Wataru Reef
Water Cays Waterlandt Island Watoe, Watu
Watts
Wellington Island Western Indian Ocean Western Islets
West Faiu, Fayu Island West Indies
West Island - Whirlwind Reefs Whitsunday Island: William the Fourth Willis Islets Wilsons Island Wittgenstein Island Wizard Island Wizard Reef Wolchonsky Island Woleas Woleai atoll Wolkonsky Island Woodle Island Worth-+Island Wostoek Island Wotho atoll Wotje-atoll, Wotsch
Wottho Inseln, Wotto To
Wozzie To
Wreck Reef
Wul, Wull
Wuwulu Island Wytoohee Island Yaruto To
Yermaloff Island Yaluto
York, Duke of, Island Yoropie, Yorupikku To Yuripik 53
Zandbuis Banks
Zaraol
Zyabatto To
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
Now 20
Health Report on Kapingamarangi
Part I A Health Survey of Kapingamarangi, 1950 Part II A Parasitologic Survey of Kapingamarangi, 1950
Part III Blood Groups of the Kapingas, November 1950
by Ralph E, Miller
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD
National Academy of Sciences--National Research Cowmcil
Washington, D. C.
Health Report on Kapingamarangi
by Ralph E, Miller
Hitchcock Clinic Hanover, New Hampshire
INTRODUCTION
This report covers fieid work carried out from June to December 1950 and is a study of the health beliefs and practices of the atoll dwellers of Kapingamarangi, The
research was carried out by the author as a special project
under the SIM (Scientific Investigation. of Micronesia) program of the Pacific Science Board of the National Research Council, Generous support was given to this project by the Office of Naval Research, tne Pacific Science Board, the Office of Island Governments, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Department of the Navy and by the Civil Administration Units in the Trust Territory. The results of the survey are submitted in three parts, consisting of the Healtn Survey of Kapin- gamarangi as Part I, A Parasitologic Survey of Kapin- gamarangi as Part II, and Blood Groups of the Kapingas as Part III.
The author was completely dependent upon the leader of the expedition, Dr. Kenneth P. Emory, for background material, orientation and interpreting, without which the attempt to survey would have been fruitless,
PART I
A HEALTH SURVEY OF KAPINGAMARANGI, 1950.
General Description of the Atoll
Kapingamarangi atoll is situated just north of the equator at 155930! degrees east longitude, It is a typical "low atoll" with the islands scattered closely along the eastern arc of the cval coral reef, There is one deep opening through the reef on the: southwest: where a narrow, tortuous passage will admit only smail craft with ease-
The south easterly trade winds provide a nearly constant cooling. breeze. In contrast to the islands to the north, rainfall is not abundant. Nearly every year sees a period of water scarcity when coconuts are used.as the standard beverage, Dug wells are used for wash water, The occasional .. rainy periods provide enough water to store, for the greater part of the year, in cisterns above ground. Typical trade: wind showers permit i Sh plant growth, The annual rainfall is reported as 80 inches.
Temperature varies slightly, the coldest periods being during the rare overcast periods of rainy days when the temperature reaches 75° degrees, The warmest days occur when the low tide permits the exposec reef eastward of the islands to be heated by the midday sun. Islands close to the eastern reef edge are noticeably cooler than those separated by a wider band of reef hae the: Be ais overwater i
tire tides. - rise once in the fuente baht hour pericd to about 3 feet above mean low and once during the period to 2 feet above mean low. The extreme low follows the extreme high. Only the extreme low tide permits exposure of the reef for a long enough period to permit noticeable temperature change inland, The usual daily temperature is 80° at night and 90° in the day, reaching the maximum at noon, . Deviation from this daily cycle is very rare, and one day is so like another that no thought need be given to "dressing for the weather": or for the time of day, :
Tidal current is, with rare exceptions, from easterly to westerly between the islands, that is, from ocean to lagoon along the island portion of the reef. There is a reversal for a short period of each tide through the pass. The current varies in strength with the time of tide and the wind velocity and very rarely with wind direction. The almost constant surf from the east has to be interrupted to cause a reversal of the current flowing by the islands, Violent storms are rare, the only one within memory being one of three days in 1947 when the wind was from the west during the entire storm,
The soil of the islets is a thin layer of coral gravel and sand mixed with leaf mold on a base of conglomerate slab of the raised reef -type. The average level is about ten feet above mean sea level, In areas where | large excavations have been made for taro swamps, coral rock and sand from
al ® —2—
ee
the excavations are piled to a height of twenty feet, in several areas producing, with their overgrowth of breadfruit trees and pandanus, park-— like vistas along the pathways of the ridges,
The activities of the population are centered at Touhou which is an entirely residential island, There, buildings are closely placed leaving space only for the working areas about the houses shaded by the trees which provide also food, fuel and fiber. Werua , the other essentially residential island ‘in the tot ah of 32, is more rural with broad areas of taro and woodland, The other island adjacent’ to’ Touhou, Taringa, is essentially rural, its forty houses well separated by woddlarid, Some islands are of the nature of country estates of the families living on the central istands. Such is Hare to the smh, and, to a issser extent Ringetoru to the north, To these, visits are made at frequent intervals to cultivate taro,’ collect coconuts cr timber and ‘on special occasions. such as childbirth or funeral or cutting out of cances,-whole families move to the island for the day or days, returning with cahoéloads of produce, There is constant traffic between the central islands on the dry - reef at low tide and wading or swimming at other times.
Plant Life
Taro and puraka are cultivated extensively, and the food trees, coconut, breadfruit and pandanus are tended with tates: These trees aod timber as do’the HAU (wild PAETSEMS) RAKAU MHE (Gordie subcordata) and WORO WORO (Premna obtusifolia)s Soke ae ba sane
These plants, shrubs and eeee o hots baci Mapnte tes oe es ecénotiy of this atoll and a large part of the daily occupation: of the ‘men, women ‘and children consists of culturing, harvesting: and preparing’ for:.. a food,’ shelter, elothing and equipment , ‘the various ‘parts of: this. abundant. plant growth, There are ‘allowed ‘td: grow un¢eultivated , grasses}: shrubs. and: trees, some of the product’ of Which are uséd ‘for casual ornamentation. Wherever these plants encroach on those essential for the economy, the encroacher is sacrificed. -Some introduced shrubs are used: ‘principally as ornamentals; though they are: given additional space because of cheers or because the. leaf provides a ‘convenient dish’ cover. 5
By) Uy BOUT MOEA ROU an oneal Ba elmige te
AS hes eee
Animal life is not abundant. The oceanic rat is a pest on the outer islands but is kept under control on Touhou by the introduced cat. Cats are numerous and largely uncéntrolleds: “They constitute a menace to rest
‘and a hazard to! supplies and light: equi pinent which can be destroyed in the
numerous cat fights. There is active’ husbandry: of pigs but their number is decreasing becattsé there is insufficierit: forage on the outer islands and
too much care is required to keep them in water and food, The pig must be
o/
aes considered as a'luxury, It serves no purpose as scavenger, There is’no garbage, It must be fed on food supplies, that would serve fcr men. Taringa and Werua islets provide some space and are close enough to permit — feeding and watering. Here the pigs are kept tethered or in small stone © sties and separated from the dwelling areca, The children are fond of little pigs as pets arid ‘keep them tethered to a shrub or tree adjacent to the house despite rules prohibiting pigs in the nabs ne area. Small, apparently harmless lizards are numerous, |
Sea Life
Sea ‘life is abundant and varied, Fishing is one of the principal activities of the men and provides, beside the chief protein food, relaxation, exercise and play for the men and youths, It also constitutes a considerable hazard because of the jagged coral and the poisonous and well armed animal life of the reef and lagoon floor, Long imnersion and exposure to sum also produce casualties on each of the group-fishing expeditions,
Bird Life
Birds are represented by the usual island varieties in small numbers, There are terns, herons, curlew, and frigate birds, A stariing, reputedly introduced by the Germans, [ possibly Micronesian starling?—-ed,_/, is a nuisance and destroys a considerable quantity of breadfruit. Chickens are kept on all the frequently visited islands except Touhou. They are cared for much as are the pigs, as a luxury, Eggs are not used as food but allowed . to hatch, ee
ee Insect life
Insect life is made obvious by the house fly, or as it is called locally the "breadfruit fly". Mosquitoes, ants and cockroaches are also numerous. Mosquitoes interfere with sleep on the outer islands, The ants destroy wooden buildings and the cockroaches destroy clothing, The spiders and small scorpicns are not known to cause casualties, No ticks or chiggers are seen,
The People
The islands are inhabited by about 500 typical Polynesians bi Bites a’small element of recently added Micronesian stock, The atoll lies off the trade routes and has been visited infrequently and that in recent years (since 1870), For centuries these people lived a stone age culture and are in the very early stages of adaptation to modern tools, equipment, clothing and concepts of disease. The shell adze is replaced by the steel adze.
~The steel knife is used by all, Cotton fabric has replaced the native
5
pandanus sail and HAU cloth. The cloth kilt has replaced the HAU kilt for daily wear and whenever available for special occasions trousers and shirts are worn ‘by the men and long dresses by the women, A few men have shoes which are’ worn for dress occasions. Use of clothing of temperate climate type and of the cloth sail have prompted the importation of a few sewing — machines (German period).
Sheet metal strips are used instead of thatch on a few roofs and for rainwater catch areas adjacent to concrete cisterns. Fish lines and nets are largely imported twine, though the largest nets are made from coconut fiber and cannot be duplicated by imported material, The metal fishhook has entirely replaced the shell and wooden variety and every fisherman prefers the glass and wood or glass and plastic diving goggles to the less efficient coconut oil-slick surface,
' Nearly every household has at least one metal cooking utensil and there are a few eating implements.
Despite the modern importations, at times advantageous and at times ‘of questionable value, the culture is essentially that of an isolated, primitive people. The daily routine of the women is the dawn bath and toilet in the tidecurrent, the opening of the ground-oven for morning food, forenoon gathering and preparation of food from plant and tree or cultivating of taro, the afternoon cooking and cleaning of fish, the late afternoon bath at the time clothes are washed, the evening meal after the family is reunited from trips to outer islands or fishing. Such routine is kept from monotony by mat weaving and basket making at odd moments or by groups of families working at preserving foods for out of season use. The trips to outlying islands on special occasions provide an element of recreation, There is this element in most of the daily tasks. None is carried to the point of fatigue and the spirit of play is seen in every cepa users
Men are concerned with » huiding houses, canoes and shelters and with making the gear and equipment for such building and for fishing. The work is done usually in groups where there is mild competition of skill and exchange of tasks resulting in much fun and little fatigue. There are masters of each skill who take WHER acknowledged places as leaders.
Recreation, as such, is chiefly the play of children a on Sundays, since work has become tabu by decree of the church, card playing a all 88° _ BTOUPS e | :
As might be apostles. in such a placid environment which is ‘rarely — unkind, there is little to cause nervous strain. An occasional crying child gives evidence of the frustrations of infancy. Rarely are these frustrations evident beyond infancy, and then are seen in the rare maladjusted household, A few of the populace have fear of disease and a few are over—concerned about their personal health evidenced by disproportionate apprehension about mild symptoms, ‘Mast, however, are happy, completely adjusted, with little thought for: the future beyond ‘a a& food supply. ee
ane
a
The family units of this society are tied together by church meetings and by the frequent meetings for carrying on governnent affairs by the men, These serve to accept or reject publicly the proposals that have been discussed and usually settled in the daily informal meetings in the men's house and other work shops, Public announcements are as likely to be made at church gatherings as at the government meetings, and with equal weight,
This environment appears especially kind to children, They have few restrictions. For their first few years they are unhampered by clothing of any kind. Family discipline is so mild and casual as to appear like neglect, The children are as at home in the water as on land, They handle canoes with ease at an early age and a load of five capvtained by a ten year old is a not uncommon sight. The strongest, and apparently most effective admonition is a leud "shefh!"
Youth is as unhampered, Boys or girls are seen in separate groups during the day but after sunset especially on moonlight nights canve loads of mixed parties are off to outer islands or singing and dancing on the beach. There is apparently complete freedom of sex play and no stigma attached to premarital pregnancy or childbirth. An unknown father, is in no way a handi- cap for such offspring, They are adopted and have the status of the mother. A single marriage partner is the ruie but exceptions are noted and the house= hold.of a sterile marriage may be-bliessed by the offspring of a mutually acceptable partner to replace temporarily the unfruitful one,
The. people are governed by a chief who, has two assistant chiefs, 3... ene for Touhou islet and one for Werua islet. The ancient priesthood hasi.: been partly replaced by the Christian church, The position of magician or medicine man was one of -importance with grave responsibilities and.con- siderable authority. There is no one quite comparable in the present organization,
The administrative officers, school teacher and a medical aide receive salaries from the United States Civil Administration.
Order is maintained without visible restraints, Public opinion is all powerful, occasionally overruled by the chief, but at the risk of his chiefship. ve
The men and women take their positions of adult responsibility only after organizing a household of their own including at least one child, their own or adopted. The position is of full responsibility even then only if the work of the adults is considered as contributing to group welfare. Youths of both sexes..are not compelled or even urged to work. The male takes full advantage of this, and for a;:certain period, comparable to the highschool and early college age, the boys are set apart from this otherwise industrious society, They loaf, sing, dance, are pampered by their mothers, are well fed and wear the gaudiest SERU the family can afford, They are - even organized against work and exert their own public opinion against the occasionally ambitious youth. This period passes, and generally, without harm. A few carry the attitude on into their own adult household.
-7-
. The girls early learn their task of being the burden bearers, and in youth do most of the household work, including care of younger (ERNE 2s
Brest §
Sanitation
The sanitation of Kapingamarangi is of the natural type due to tide, sun, wind. and rain, Man has altered his environment slightly, in part advantageously and in part with some hazards to health. When the alteration has favored health that aspect of the change has been’a by=product and not the direct result of an attempt at more healthful conditions. There has not been, and is not now, any comprehension of the spread of disease from man to man cr from animal to man.
. Personal cleanliness is notable but not universal and there is a strong suspicion that its prevalence is induced by the desiré to avoid attracting. flies, The sea is ever present and easily accessible, © Bathing in it is a.daily activity of practically everyone. Pools on the reef reach 1CO degrees F, in the midday sun and are a favorite bathing places. “Prolonged soaking of clothing in the tide current is a favorite cleansing method and the nearest they, ever come to sterilization.
Within the family circle personal contact is iesinee and frequent. It starts before the first breath of life as the delivered infant has its mouth and nese aspirated by the application of the attendant'’s mouth and tongue, The infant is cared for by every member of the family, young and old, Some infant food is prechewed. All are served at the family table — by the only common eating implement, the hands, Though food is ideally — aseptic when removed from the ground oven in its tight containers, there- after it is handled without regard for sanitation, unless it ‘is to be kept for a later meal, It has been learned that food left intact in its wrapping after cooking will not spoil as rapidly as opened food, and that recooking will prevent spoiling for many hours, but this experience has not been. transferred to the use of heat to clean clothes, mats, sheets or blankets, towels or wound dressings,
Handkerchiefs are an affectation. Fingers are the acceptable substitute. Spitting is common, a gesture of slight nervousness.
Disposal. |
The common toilet is the reef, covered or uncovered by'sea, At times children consider that the general direction of the designated spot on the reef satisfies the convention, and many an adult contaminates areas of the reef close to a play area for children, a sand beach of which will be smeared by the drift of the next high tide, Even the effluvia of the several over-— water (except during low tide) toilets is swept ashore either directly or by the swift current about the end of the islands into the lagoon, This is
o/s
-8-
preserved from severe contamination in the backeddy of the lagoon shore by dilutiom and speeding of the biologic cycle by the abundant sea life,
Refuse disposal areas are those requiring fill because of erosion or because mulch is desired for planting. The value of compost is known end banana and coconut plantings are made om compost pits in which vegetable refuse has been accumulating for months. The grounds generally are kept quite free from refuse. There is a daily morning “priicing" of grounds when women and children pick up all fallen leaves and such revuse as the men and boys have thrown down anywhere, The houses do not accumulate refuse: All the cooking is done in or near the cook housc, which is usually several feet, at least from the dwelling, Preparing of food and eating is generally out cf doors, The times when indoor eating is necessary are rare, Under these circumstanzes scveps and bones are thrown out through the open sides of the house, Feet are washed before entrance onto matting portions of the floors,
There are weekly cleanup days and, periodically, days for burning stumps and refuse heaps along the high mee mark; A common type of refuse
.., that, appears difficult to control is ripe breadfruit falling at the peak of the season, Chewed pandanus eeeeuare discarded without discretion.
The lagoon is the repository of ali refuse except that put in compost pits for later tree planting - It " apparent that anything thrown or drifted into the lagoon is considered comp! letely and finally disposed of, Baskets of miscellaneous refuse are dumped into the lagoon among groups of swimmers. People living along the Jagoon shore wade into the water and use this universal toiitet without regard for wind or tide, The currents of the back eddy that is fairly constant at ee the islands form a sort of cess pool. used for evening bathing by all and.for fishing by small boys.’ The. lagoon shore is a scene of constant. activity, clothes washing, preparing coconut husk fiber for rope making, bathing, swimming, cleaning fish, loading and unloading canoes, All refuse remains where dropped in this shallow shore area until the next tide brings about a redistribution and dilution, Despite the dilution this remains a constantly contaminated area through which the populace (and visitors, until a pier was completed recently) wade or swim without a thought that it is any less pure than the open sea or rapidly flowing current between the islets. The same situation prevails at the common landing areas of the outer islands,
Residences and traffic are much more widely scattered at Werua | and Taringa and their waterfronts are nobiceably cleaner.
!
Food...
The staples of the diet are taro, PURAKA, and coconut with fish as — an almost constant accompaniment as are breadfruit and pandanus in season, The three variables, fish, breadfruit and pandanus are preserved (dried). in times of ‘plenty but the Sauptica are insufficient to sustain the population for very long without the staple components. Breadfruit trees of three varieties are now well established and:this item of food is approaching
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' the constancy of taro and coconuts. The varieties vary in ‘maturing times
and in duration of season but all are affected by drought, The oldest
grown here and known as the Kapingamarangi variety matures in two months and bears for three months, The Nukuoro variety bears for a month then matures
a new crop in one month, ‘These two varieties of fruit contain large seeds which are edible when cooked, The third: -yariLety brought in from Ponape has been established too short a time to be certain of its season here, however
it is different from the other two, maturing either two or three crops a year. This variety is without edible seeds, and does not lend itself to preservation by drying as do the other two,
Pigs, chickens, bananas and papayas are produced in too small quant ity to contribute much to the diet and are considered as luxuries.
In times of drought taro, PURAKA, and coconut and fish may be the only supplies that persist and the coconuts are fewer and smaller. The taro is much smaller during these dry periods. The PURAKA does much better in the dry times and tends to overgrow the taro.
One famine has been recorded (1915 to 1917) when there was no rain for two years, Over fifty people died and the famine was aggravated by imposed rules restricting coconuts to copra production, denying their use for food. There were insufficient canoes during this same period reducing the amount of fish available.
Diet
Taro is cooked in coconut cream or grated coconut. This form of food accounts for the greater part of the use of coconuts as food, The soft pulp of drinking nuts is eat but recognized as having little food value so far as sustaining activity is concerned, Pandanus is eaten, either raw or boiled, by chewing the soft part of the key. Flour is made for storage by pulverising baked pandanus pulp cakes, The flour is later eaten mixed with water as a porridge. |
_ Fish is usually baked in leaf wrappings but some is eaten raw during its preparation and cleaning or may be served raw. The raw liver is relished by fishermen, and the liver ‘allowed to remain within some varieties for cooking. The visible fat of fish and eels is a choice item of diet. Much variety is achieved in the diet, and possible additions of food value, by varying the leaf wrappings. Such additions are the only condiments beside the generally used coconut cream, No salt is used in cooking o: during the meal, Salt is now used for preserving fish when the slices receive a slight coating of salt preliminary to drying in the sun,
Strong evidence of the adequacy of the diet is the condition of the residents who are robust, energetic, active, industrious and happy. No ‘instance. of malnutrition or obvious vitamin lack was noted, Their own studied analysis of what these people need to survive the most difficult ' times yields the answer that fish hooks and twine‘for the finer nets would see. them through, because all’ other essentials of life are present or'can be secured if they can maintain a sufficient supply of food ‘fish.
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The abundant varied food supply compensates for some items of the diet which have limited direct food value such as the fiber component of HI coconut husk (young nuts) and pandanus, During the pandanus season the 4 faeces of children and some adults consist of a mass of such fiber, In ti any season when there is a decrease of standard items the husk of young coconuts is consumed in quantity for its slight sugar content. Both sources of fiber yield a fecal mass of such size and: consistency as to be i alarming, It may be that one of the unheralded virtues of the coconut it alleviates the possible hazard of fecal impaction, The unaltered oil of | the raw.(and perhaps cooked) coconut is found in nearly all faeces specimens and in quantity in many, The oil is apparently a relatively bland lubricant. However this oil consists of a lost element of considerable amount from the theoretical quantity of available caloric content of the coconut. In quantity, the cooked oil is a cathartic of some violence, The pandanus oil is likewise found unaltered in the faeces, ty of both these oils requires investigation, if not already studiea,
Another food item used in quantity at certain times and as a small component of the diet throughout the breadfruit season is breadfruit seeds, Bach fruit of the two seed-—containing varieties contains from 10 to 30 seeds varying from 1 cm. to 1.5 cm, in diameter, Removal of the thin soft shell | yields a kernel with the flavor of boiled chestnuts, The food value of this seed must be considerable, It takes the place of fish or meat in the dietary during fish shortage and immediately following the peak of the breadfruit ‘season when the large quantity of seeds removed from the fruits prepared for a drying are stored for a short ae. and ae Consumed in quantity as boiled or roasted nuts,
Rice is used at feasts, It has not been adopted as a staple of diet because of cost and availability of othér food. In times of scarcity | it is welcomed, Many families’ have a pot used especially for boiling rice. it The leaders recognize that rice cannot replace items of the regular diet | without interfering with the stability of supply. Coffee and sugar are luxuries, available to a few. . t
Water Supply i
Formerly the water supply was from dug wells in the villages of Touhou and Werua and on the margins ofthe taro SWAMPS » The water level in these wells rises and falls with the tide, The water is brackish in the ya village wells, precipitating much of the soap before suds are obtained . mn The concrete cisterns and metal strip catch areas, introduced by the 1) Japanese, provide storage for months of use, This rain water is augmented by a store in metal drums filled from the same catch areas and from natural catchments such as coconut trees, i
The wells are still the source of wash water except in times of if abundance of rain water, It is stated that yearly there is some time when i rainwater is scarce and, periodically, about once a generation, a prolonged | drought. A survey of the cisterns indicates there is sufficient capacity HH) to last two months, (See chart I). Ki
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Chart I ie | TOTAL NUMBER OF TANKS hh EN 27 TOTAL CAPACITY cubic feet 4,800 USABLE TANKS Za USABLE CAPACITY cubic feet | 3700 TOTAL CATCH AREA USED ; 3800 Four large tanks CAPACITY , ac: $2500 Four large tanks CATCH AREA 1300
trough
metal roofing — sheets 8! x 26"
weene? concrete, smooth finish, rectangular open top tank about 8' square, about 5! deep. wall &" thick. tap -----[--- i
Diagram I.
PREFERRED TANK AND CATCH AREA
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The tanks are not now used to capacity, rarely lasting more than a month, Their proper use would require some over-all supervision concerning catch areas, periodic cleaning and rotation of use. Several tanks are so managed now and indicate the value by yielding a water supply after other tanks are dzy. Upon several inspections about half the tanks were found in good.condition cf cleanliness and repair, Cleaning is made necessary by the daily fall cf leaves from the breadfruit trees and by the inflow carrying partly decayed leaves into the tank from the cauchment areas. Roofing of the tanks and frequent removal of leaves from the catchment areas is helpful, but is not a constant practice. Cne factor in the in- complete use of tanks By the scarcity of the roofing strips used for the catchment ereas,.
A contributing factor to the neglect of the tanks is the luxury nature of this water suppiy. The wells never fail, In dry spells the women carry water from the wells for washing and coconuts are used for drinking in extreme drought. When the nuts are scarce even the well water may be drunk, The water from the taro pit wells is quite sweet, In extreme dry spells - the tanks are dry long before the plant life suffers from lack cf rain,
_ The tanks are an aid.to the economy of time and effort and probably con-— “tribute to the health of the populace but they are not an essential, They are highly prized for prestige, alone, Tanks most recently built are larger than the early tanks and appear to be more easily managed,
The water tanks serve as breeding places for mosquitoes. This is controlied by de-roofing the tanks and letting sunlight in. The larger tanks are not easily uncovered and probably copper screening might be a better solution to the mosquito problem.
Tanks on the outer islands have fallen into disuse because of the amount of care required to keep the water from them useable,. Water stored in the concrete tanks was still of good quality after two months... Their position above ground and the high sides make them unlikely to aoe by children,
The contamination of the wells is chiefly from surface drainage, most abundant at the central well on Touhou where bathing and clothes washing is a daily practice quite close to the well, This central well supplies the wash water for the entire village whenever cisterns are at a low level. There is traffic throughout the day about the well. The children play with small buckets in imitation of the water carriers, Loose sand and gravel gradually reduce the water depth, and require periodic removal, at which times the rock wall, is ‘repaired and brought to ground level, This use of the well is probably no hazard to health, but habits of use are transferred to other wells used for drinking water, The -use of concrete is known in the construction of the tanks, Its use to make raised ae would eliminate much of the present gross contamination,
_ The pericdicity of the rainfall which controls the dead of the food- supplying trees is now the only very serious problem in water supply.
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Shelter
The traditional shelter and clothing of the Kapingas are admirably adapted to the climate. In contrast, the adoption of foreign clothes habits © and foreign building material has pr red unhnealthful, Shoes, worn part of the time because constant wear is impossible, introduce... the hazard of softensd natural foot covering which is incapab‘e of withstanding the wear and tear of coral, Constristing températe climate clothing is uncomfortable ~ and prevents proper body cooling, The laundry methods in use are not suitable for the care of such bicthing, adding much time to that required for repair,
The few board houses roofed with metal strips are hot, dark, dirty and harbor cockroaches, ants, mosquitoes and flies. The cpen sided pandanus thatch roofed, coral gravel floored house is so far’ superior that only the strongest urge for prestige and the possession of abundant funds have accomplished a change from the traditional house. There is an indication _ that as soon as the termites have destroyed the few present board buildings © no more will be built, Reversal to a normal type of clothing for the climate is less likely because of the well established church requirement that mi clothes be worn. pos all who have thei. | ij
Health
Trauma and communicable disease are the two prince ciple causes of casualties, Long adaptation to the environment is evident in resistance to the effects of sun and sea and coral gravel, The keratinized layer of the sole of the foot is usually 5 mm thick, which permit s running and walking on the coarse sharp gravel of the islands ,and reef, Feet and legs, however, | are a frequent site of injury in the form of ‘abrasions and lacerations, Puncture wounds are common and there are occasional fractures. Many of. the abrasions become subcutaneous abscesses which are well circumscribed.
The same type injury in the non-immune new-comer leads to a diffuse inflammation with lymphangitis and lymphnode enlargement .
_. The inhabitants are pabdace to sunburn, and they, as ‘any pale- skinned new-comer, must become readapted if unexposed to the sun for long periods. A chronic conjunctivitis localized to the exposed areas of the conjunctiva is prevalent, It occurs most often in fishermen who do not wear hats or who cannot because of the type of fishing such as netting on the reef during which the fishermen are submerged frequently, Others who spend hours in the sun, develop the same type lesion to a: milder. degree. In the fishermen the cornea adjacent to the pinguecula’ acquires @ pannus which with repeated injury becomes opaque, In its mildest form this lesion is a congestion of the conjunctiva limited to the exposed areas, and most intense at the pinguecula, Repeated long exposure to svn aggravates this, Some of the fishermen have attributed the affection to the use of swimming goggles. However it occurs in the women who may paddle in the bright sun for a few hours, but who do not use swinming goggles, The synicoms are like those of "snow blindness" with a feeling of "sand in the eyes",
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Drowning is infrequent considering the amount of time spent in the water from infancy to old age, There havé been three deaths from drowning in the past 3 years: One child fell from a tree into a taro swamp, smothering it in the mud, Another waded out too far on the reef, A fisherman drowned in the swift current of the pass. th
The injuries due to sea fauna are fish bites, puncture wounds and lacerations from fish spines, lacerations from crab and lobster spines and | claws, and punctures from sca-urchin spines, All these are not different
~ from similar lacerations and punctures received from metal instruments, it If the wound remains uncleansed it respends with the same type of suppuration as that seen in abrasions from coral or other injuries. The wounds heal rapidly and without suppuration if thoroughly cleansed by some such method as soaking in a mild antiseptic solution, if Supe en or by opening and cleansing if deep,
It is. stated that several types of poisonous spines are encountered such as the cone snails, a dark--colored sea~urchin, and a fish camouflaged to resemble the rock bottom. "Jelly fish" are numerous and their tentacles produce a transient itching and vesiculation, A yellow coral with fine branches produces the same type of lesion,
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The daily use of open fires leads to burns, usually of infants.
Falling coconuts and fronds are a potential source of injury thoroughly understood by the inhabitants who keep the ageing fronds cut from the palms on Tovhou and Werua where also the nuts are harvested young for drinking before big reach the falling abAeSay
Stone bruises aré common They are large and longlasting. The i keratin layer protects, but prevents the drainage of the hematoma of a stone bruise which may disable. for months, When the stonebruise is” finally exposed by wearing off the keratin covering, a rough creyassed region is left which might be mistaken for serious diseases by. the uninitiated.
Fish hooks and knives are ESSE used and megeuge their usual i) ' casualties, kh . . ' | as ee: is i
Communicable Disease
‘The lack of any accurate concept of the spread of disease, and the , 1 personal habits of this ‘compact. population, bring about a rapid spread. ail i such diseases as acute upper respiratory tract infections, acute epidemic. - i conjunctivitis, skin infections, ‘and yaws, A display of this type spread . i followed the cowpox vaccinations of June, 1950. For the following month i accidental vaccinations ot¢curred ’ in several families in which ‘some of the | i members had escaped vaccination aU the physicians visit. Many of the _ i vaccinated showed wide distribution of large vaccinia lesions, |
For a month or two following the visit of a boat there are epidemic sore throats, colds and intestinal infections characterized by diarrhoea, ~ These epidemics are like those occurring in any isolated community when the isolation is broken by visitors introducing a new respiratory tract and
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intestinal flora. The-boat that brings back the student group for summer holiday from Ponape is the.bearer of the greatest single burden of infection, Intestinal parasites, respiratory infections, pink eye and, repertee ae gonorrhoea are the principal offenders,
Hands, mouths, clothing, sleeping mats within the family secon come to bear the same flora and fauna, Dishes are gradually coming into greater use to replace the disposable type such as breadfruit leaf plates, coconut leaf plates, coconut leaf platters or coconut shell bowls. The dishés provide an excellent medium for exchanging acute infection because of the cold water washing technique, but even hot water methods might be presumed superfluous so long as the common eating method with fingers dipped into the same bowl persists. The spread of disease in this group is much like that in an individual; the entire surviving population becomes immme shores after the introduction of a new agent of infectious disease,
Isolation of infected individuals is an impossibility at present.
The exposure of a newborn infant to the group bacteria is an example of how little comprehension of bacterial disease. exists, All newborn infants are sub jected to mouth to mouth transfer of infectious agents of many female relatives, friends and assistants at the birth. An infant cry is a signal | for repetition of the transfer, The death records indicate little mortality from this practice, but the morbidity is high. Thrush fungus is prevalent, as are coughs and colds in the newborn group, It would be difficult to . ascribe a more likely source for the infection of a four months old infant
who died of *tuberculous meningitis, than this mouth to mouth transfer,
About one fifth of the populace has fungus infection of the skin. Four types are identified clinically, from which fungi were demonstrated in potassium hydroxide preparations. These are Tinea imbricata, Tinea versi- color, and Tinea cruris. Tinea favosa is uncommon, Conditions are ideal for the continuance of fung fungus infections and for their transfer. There is an indication of decreasing incidence’ ‘in recent years ‘since ese and EERE have been more regularly available, nay
Tuberculosis is not common, Occasional cases of cough with emaciation have occurred, and such patients have been isolated in a house set aside for this purpose. "Isolation" as practical here means little more than a change of scene fnr the usual bacterial: transfers. Patients isolated at the in- firmary for acute infections were visited regularly by family and friends. Spouse slept with spouse and friend with friend on the narrow infirmary cot. The usual eating habits are practiced undér isolation as at home, At funeral ceremonies the deceased is kissed good-bye by all regardless of the cause of death, Under the circumstances, if tuberculosis were common it should be more evident, Only one case of probable tuberculosis was seen in five months, that of a four months old infant dying of tuberculous meningitis, Of the many coughs treated at the infirmary none was ‘found with physical signs of! tuberculosis, No emaciated sick people with cough were seen,
. Arthritis is uncommon, Two patients were seen with symptoms and signs characteristic of mild infectious arthritis. The women complain of pain in the sacroiliac region radiating down the leg. These patients gave a history. of some type of unusual activity prior to the eI a Such work
* Clinical diagnesis aie
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as pounding pandanus leaves or mashing’ breadfruit or pandanus pulp with a heavy pounder is done periodically with little preparation for the strenuous exercise of muscles required. The young women pride themselves on ability to carry heavy loads, and occasionally complain of the same SURIBL ONS»
Psychologically the AS aie appear well adjust ed to their situation of isolation, Many of the older people recognize the advantages of climate, location and food supply. These have returned after visits abroad to spend their remaining days here without regret, Youth wants to get away. Many of | them return with appreciation that the contrast with other places is in favor of Kapingamarangi. Ninety Kapingamarangi people have migrated to Ponape (village of Porokiet), The reason given by some, and this is agreed to by the leaders at Kapinga, is that the atoll will support only a limited nunber, and that 500 is too large a population,
No severe psychoses were seen. Certain young women are noted for hysterical attacks attributed to seeing ghosts, There is some concern for personal health usually manifested by calling for medical aid for slight aches and pains, This apprehension appears to be based upon the concept that pain is the only symptom of disease. This is further emphasized by the patient's failure to call for help until other symptoms and signs are well advanced when pain develops. This is not out of proportion to the degree of education concerning disease processes. One case of presenile dementia was seen,
No cancer was seen, either in skin where it would be obvious, or as signs of internal disease, Epidermal inclusion cysts. (wens) are common and two lipomas were seen. No basal cell Bebbhesones were seen,
Sterility of women is a common complaint There are 101 married couples, 29 of which have no children, The cause of this was not learned. The reputed frequency of gonorrhoea might explain this and the frequent occurrence of unions with but one child. However, the only signs or symptoms called to my attention despite my frequent requests to treat any cases of gonorrhoea was one case of recurrent Daqenodse ba8 and ; sone case. of acute apie Tame «:
Parasitism
Specific evidence of disease due to parasites is lacking, Faeces from 275 people were examined for intestinal parasites and 100 found to carry at least one parasite, an incidence of 36.4%. Hookworm 21.9%, and pinworm found in 4 of 20 NIH preparations represent the common intestinal parasites. Pro- tozoa were rare. Blood parasites were not found in 20 thick and. 20 thin preparations stained with Giemsa stain, Even though no direct evidence of disease from these parasites was found, such a burden of parasites is a hazard, Twenty-four carried both hookworm and whipworm, both parasites pro- ducing blood loss, If this population were investigated for. anemia, ab- normality might be demonstrated due. to these parasites. Lice are common.
Anomalies
Anomalies are infrequent. One boy with a mild degree of pigeon breast is apparently not handicapped and has no other obvious anomaly. One small pit in the pinna of an ear was classed as a remnant of a branchial’ cleft because it had been present from birth. Two children with apparent endocrine dyscrasia were seen, An 8 year old boy with Simmon's disease, and an 18 year old girl without secondary female sex characteristics, The usual age for development of secondary sex characteristics of the female is LP tal
Of a debatably anomalous natureiwas one case of hydrocephalus, a boy aged 4 with fontanells open and head circumference increased. In the same category are two cases of mild spastic pers prger cs ,
Mutilation
‘A mild form of mutilation of ear lobes was ‘discontinued when church replaced priesthood. Women still pierce’the ear for ear rings, Youths scarify their arms in commemoration of early sex che cane usually with a glowing cigarette.
Medical Care
In 1947 an infirmary was built on Touhou. This is a native type house of post and thatch construction, separated into two rooms by a partition, The infirmary is equipped with utensils, simple instruments, two beds with mattresses, three small tables, instrument stand, shag examining table, benches and a chair,
~The medical aid, Samuel (dune. to 5th upistd relieved by Masao (August to ‘November) works under the remote supervision of the staff of the Ponape hospital from which supplies are replenished periodically. Beginning in August 1950 the periods were increased from two months to three months. The medical aid makes inspections and, through the assistant chiefs secures the burial of refuse heaps, burning of trash and the cleaning of water tanks, isolation of pigs and spraying to reduce the flies. The persistence and success of the fly spraying program is largely due to the enthusiasm of the assistant chiefs, The flies are convincingly fewer on Touhou and Werua where the spraying is done than on the outer islands, There is no comparable program to eel: the ant or cockroach population,
The: medical aid acts as the people’ physician, prescribing, while they last, the simple and harmless remedies which, under the circumstances can be the only ones supplied in quantity, These remedies are given on the basis of a symptom: A cough received medication A, a headache receives medidation B and a stomachache receives medication C, A patient with all three symptoms gets the three remedies. Abrasions and lacerations are cleaned and bandaged in a manner commensurate with several months training on the basis of complete ignorance of the concepts of infection and asepsis. / 6/@o
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niniedine aid enjoys some prerogatives of the former medicine man without the latterfs social pesition of respect due to age and training. This ~ situation léads to certain mild conflicts, as between the assistant chiefs and the medical aid, The assistant chiefs are highly respected executive © officers of the chief, ‘One’ is the son of the former chief. The medical aid is not now looked vpon as having’ ‘abtained a eee position of responsibility.
.. It is a favorable commentary en the sound policy of tHe basic program that even with these handicaps, the people are benefitting from the infirmary and its personnel. There is almost daily use of the facilities for wound dressing. The gauze and bandage materiai provided is still preferred for head - dress and arm band decoration and may be replaced by a home bandage. Many perspective patients treat their own wounds at home with wnsteriie bandage or EAU leaf covering until, in some instances, dpscesses develop. Others come for treatment of very s1ight abrasions, indicating a possible appreciation that ‘early treatment may prevent later trouble, All cases of severe injury are brought to the infirmary,
. The infirmary is serving a need. It isa symbor to the people that there is an outside interest in their welfare and it serves as a meeving place from which sanitation and health knowledge can be spread as soon as the planned personnel. is available. A government poster, a translation for which was prepared by Masao the beaponery aid, has been displayed prominently ‘in. infirmary, church and school. it deals "with flies, mosquitoes, rubbish and -disease and has received much attention’and comment. The enthusiasm for the health program is spreading but still remains largely with the leaders, . Serious illness is still treated by long established primitive methods.
Medical Lore and Practices ©
The gods of the Kapingas are deified ancestors of their atoll home who inhabit the sea outside the reef, These gods are the benefactors of the people and are all powerful,
The ancient priesthood acted as intermediaries with these tribal gods, requesting their aid to ward off afflictions or assist in siete: projects,
The spirits of the recently dead reside in the lagoon and return to wander about their former home on land. Some of these ghosts are mischievous or have, grudges against specific living enemies.
Medical practice for the treatment of disease was traditionally in the. hands of practitioners or mgicians, who had power passed on from their ancestors. The power consisted of methods of control of the ghosts of the lagoon and of formulae for specific remedies, Any obscure illness is attributed to seeing these ghosts, the sight of certain spirits producing particular illnesses,
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One of the commoner ghost-caused diseases is a condition of young women called HOTUPE (fits), It is a temporary apparent disorientation of the attacked patient who may run into the sea if not restrained, The attack starts suddenly with a series of loud, shrill screams resembling those of'a suddenly hurt child, The crics follow a stereotyped pattern immediately recognized as being those of the individual attacked, Some have advocated as treatment a lack of restraint; the patient runs into the sea. (on the smooth poe of one reef) and recovers immediately.
A disease characroreds by. menorrhagia is attributed to seeing two... ghosts.
A practitioner maintained his position by the success or failure of his exorcising and his herbal remedies, Herbal remedies were, and still are, used for conmon afflictions, Some former remedies have been discarded in favor of some imported from Nukuoro (probably once the home of the Kapingas). These remedies are carefully written and indexed in a note book prepared by Alfred Patterson who was trained in the ancient practices. He recorded them while visiting Nukuoro, Their antiquity is not known, Some differ little in principle from remedies devised by any one desiring a purge, relief from pain or irritation or for hemostasis, ‘The complexity cf some formulae hints of their pessible origin in secretly compounded magic, it is stated that _, the remedies must be made and used in a certain way to be effective, This
is the reason given for keeping the formulae carefully guarded, :
One series of remedies, totalling 12 were ina separate category called sacred. These are all mixtures of the juices of plants, for external and fcr internal use, They are described. completely in the appended list, One internal and one external remedy are described here as examples,
A, A remedy for headache,
a. Three yellow leaves of PUKA (Pisonia grandis) Three green leaves of PUKA - Three leaflets of TUA KIMOA (Vigna marina)
b. A husk of coconut that has been soaking in the sea to rot, is Jotsee) in fresh water for a day.
‘Ge. , A hole abou a oes deep is dug in the ou and this lied with a leaf of NGAUNGAU (aseng is nacrorrhiza) ("apel in Hawaiian) »
After pounding the leaves in a owls: a coconut cloth is ved as a strainer and the juice squeezed into this hole.
d. The water is wrung from the coconut husk and added to the juice. in the "ape" leaf,
The patient lies on his back immersing his head in the mixture allowing just nose and mouth above the fluid. The treatment is given for an hour or less for three successive days if necessary. If the patient has not recovered after three days of rest from treatment another series of three is given,
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B, A remedy for bloody diarrhoea and fever.
A stem of fruit of WARANGA (Pi ipturus a ar penteus),, 6 fruits of the HUATORO (Triumfetta - procumbens), and a 3-inch ‘square of outer layer of coconut “trunk.
These are pounded in a bowl and the juice squeezed through a cloth into a small immature coconut about half fuil of-its juice, The mixture is heated and drunk for the first dose and. peneahes cold for two more doses.
A second category of remedies is used because of well demonstrated ability of the remedy to produce a certain effect. One of these, WARE WARE is used as a home remedy for any one not feeling well enough to be-up and: about his work, A mature coconut is opened with strokes of the sharp edge of a knife blade leaving about 1/3 of the shell as a cover, The juice is saved, the meat shredded with a scraper including all of the thin brown coating of the meat. The shredded meat and juice are replaced and the covered nut cooked in the ground nven. The mixture is drunk hot and produces a moderate purging,
An absorbent dressing is made from the hairy Sasi of the "Bird nest" fern (Aspleaium nidus).
Round flat leaves, such as the HAU (wild hibiscus) (Hibiscus tiliaceus) are applied either directly or by, use of a gum, to abrasions and lacerations to keep the flies away.
Coconut water from the young nut is given new-born infants pending a supply of milk from the mother, This water produces a purging, thought desirable by the Kapingas, sometimes sufficient to produce a bloody mucous fecal mass. Microscopic examination of such material shows many macrophages filled with the coconut oil droplets,
Obstetrical cars
Obstetrics is entirely the field of older women, some of whom have earned a place comparable to that of midwife by attending many births, From the onset of pregnancy the prospective mother.is. set apart and advised by the older women, During the first month of pregnancy..she does not work but carries on her usual tasks thereafter because it is thought she will be unable to carry on labor properly otherwise, . Sexual intercourse is tabu throughout pregnancy and thereafter for one years. There is a strong belief in prenatal influence, and many tabus concerning what the mother should look at and avoid seeing. A first pregnancy and delivery are accompanied by much ceremony omitted from subsequent ones. Traditionally. at. the onset of labor the obstetrical party retreated to a remote island, Now many deliveries take place in a neighbor's or friend's house within the village, .
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There are apparently two schools of thought concerning the desirability of early bearing down. Some urge the mother to exert herself throughout labor, others insist it does no good until the third stage of labor which is recognized by the bursting of the amniotic sac and the resultant flow of watery fluid, Long cloths are’ ‘tied about the epigastrium and pulled tight to assist the expulsion, frequently in the early stages of labor. The mother is provided with a rope tied to the upper part of a house post against which her feet rest whilé she pulls, Primipnara were found exhausted in the early hours of labor with the infant head still above the pelvic brim, There is apparently agreement of all the older women that once the amniotic sac has ruptured the delivery must be speeded because the child will inhale blood,
One severe perineal, tear was seen which may.well have been due to a hurried third stage. There is comparable urgmcy. to speed the piacenta and membranes, even to exerting traction on the membranes, if there is delay, to the point of tearing them free, Traction on the cord,is avoided. The delivery bed is an old mat of pandanus. The mother is draped to keep the flies away.
The infant is received in the hands of the midwife who immediately cleanses the mouth and nose of the infant by sucking them free of mucous. The tongue of the midwife is inserted into the infant's mouth to search out any foreign material, This process is repeated especially if the infant cries,
It is thni.ght such cleansing must be done to permit the first breath and that it must be repeated to insure that it is a complete cleansing pheceas:
Formerly the cord was cut about three inches from the umbilicus with a sharp sea shell and left untied. Only rare hemorrhage occurred. Now cords are tied with thread, The infant is immediately washed with fresh coconut cream.
Any indication of a concept of asepsis is lacking, The use of clean cloths is a gesture in that direction and. the cleanliness of the cloth is of the cold water variety. .A, bath in the ocean is attempted'by some immediately prior to delivery. The mouth to mouth aspiration is repeated by relatives and friends of the family, The first solid food of the infant, given pending the mother's milk supply, is prechewed,.
The placenta is washed, wrapped in a cloth and buried in the channel between the islands, The cord stump is allowed to drop off and is then placed, if from a female, in the base of the leaves of a lily plant, and if froma male, in the fold of the leaves of a young coconut tree.
The mother is urged to take food throughout labor and immediately after delivery, even though exhaustion may cause its immediate vomiting. One sixteen year old primipara was delivered while chewing a pandanus key. Maternal rest following delivery is looked upon as a sign of weakness, and an effort is made to avoid the stigma, The mother sits up shortly after delivery. She travels to the ocean for a bath as soon as she can walk, and is usually visiting neighbors within three days. A journey from an outlying island is undertaken the day after delivery. Some of the women are in a state of exhaustion, but apparently no concessions are made for a prolonged or difficult labor. A tea made from any one of several varieties of plant is routinely taken by the mother shortly after delivery.
“/e
oe Swan way —22— T Rte
The medical aid and the aaa man Byer esoe pevOratice of all obstetrical practices, ch aN ge
There is room for the application of a few simple-remedies in delivery and the puerperium, Two instances cf omphalitis in the newborn were seen, Thrush fungus was severe in fovr mouths of newborns, Suppurative skin infections were seen in fovr. One infant had bronchopneumonia,
None of the infants died, and infant mortality is said to be low, One is compelled to great caution in advising any change. of procedure in the face ef such a mertality rate and absence of alternatives, The mouth to mouth practice which violates the principle of isolation of an infant from new bacterial flora goes all the way in the cpposite direction and brings to the infant almost all the bacteria it is going to meet. The abandonment of a practice which achieves a difficult task, that of removing mucous from the upper respiratory tract, might be harmful, especially when:we consider that the same result is attempted commonly in medical practice by wiping out the mouth with sterile gauze and aspirating with a sterile catheter,
I believe the people are quite anxious to accept innovations in their obstetrical practice, but both equipment and personnel must be available before any improvement is possible, The medical aid might be able to intro~ duce an alcohol cord dressing and a perineal pad soaked in some antiseptic solution such as is commonly available at infirmaries.
Two puerperal deaths have occurred in the past two years during which time there have been ),5 births, The cause of the deaths is not known. There were 3 infant deaths in the same period.
There is shown in Table 1 a record of seven weeks infirmary visits as an indication of the conditions diagnosed and treated there, In addition house calls were made during the five months of residence for the following probable conditions. 1
Auricular fibrillation with failing circulation eb aS a
Bronchopneumonia F 7k Ruptured ectopic Seay F.21, Early pregnancy F.20, Miscarriage of maeceraeed foetus, 4 Mo. Fo2le Recurrent abscess Bartholin's Gland F.15> Acute epididymitis . 018. Chronic arthritis, hypertrophic,. M.60, Tuberculous meningitis, death, F,4 Mo. Coronary occlusion, death. F.81; Bleeding umbilical cord (poor a a Fil d. Suppurative omphalitis . vd i F,2 wks; Bronchopneumonia rs BO) de Hysteria, (Marital problem) M.2h. Hysteria, —— Adnedhitirs F.21, Fever of unknown cause bs F2ho Exhaustion 2d.post partum F.3% Dystocia — Delays Rupture of Membranes F306
TABLE I
TABLE OF CONDITIONS FOR WHICH 161 PATIENTS MADE 563 VISITS TO THE INFIRMARY FROM SEPTEMBER 21 TO NOVEMBER 11, 1950.
Lacerations and abrasions ~ en oa _ Acute epidemic conjunctivitis 20 Tooth extraction for caries | a, Upper respiratory tract infection 1h Tinea i aS _ Cough i 10
Infected lacerations and abrasions Suppurative gingivitis Headache Stomachache Abscess, unexplained — Acute otitis media Vague and mild symptoms Tooth ache, caries (no extraction) Back strain Yaws, pnssible Yaws, probable Thrush stomatitis Abscess jaw, due to dental caries Unexplained fever Seborrhoeic dermatitis Burns, accidental Acute conjunctivitis (sun exposure) _ . Chronic infectious arthritis? " . | Ménorrhagia ~ Amenorrhoea Fracture (arm, fall due to epilepsy) Chronic suppurative otitis media Peptic ulcer ??
FPHEHPNNUONNNWWWENEEEEEEUAD:
Diarrhoea elias Winn Liethe Suppurative lymphadenitis (head lice) : M130
Summarized, these lists indicate no great variation from the conditions prevalent in any small community where the population is subject to a great deal of trauma in daily activities and where the personal cenitation is not on a high level . ; ‘
One month's visits at the infirmary are recorded as 286 visits by 122 patients, The commonest complaint was cough and sore throat of which condition there were 38, Trauma, principally as lacerations and abrasions, was second with 19 instances, 6 infected, Teeth and gums were the cause of numerous complaints. There were 18 patients with tooth ache from carious teeth and five with very severe gingivitis. The natural history of tooth decay is dis- played prominently in all adult mouths, Many gold and silver crowns and fillings are also seen (Japanese period, Ponape). Gingivitis is prevalent
after 20 years of age, and appears to offer a fertile field for health
ae
a
improvement by education concerning well established methods of mouth
hygiene, Tooth brushing: with coconut husk fiber is practiced oy some. The
forty teeth extracted for caries with pain represent a very small part of . the teeth requiring care, -
TABLE. 2
_THE AGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESIDENTS OF KAPINGAMARANGI NOVEMBER 1, 1950
AGE M F TOTAL
Under 1 3 a ‘die ay 19 nN 20 2 5 5 19 3 mys 10 ae
h 4 6 1U | TOn<), aye 26 50 15.19 cf) 2 52 20-2), e) 33 L9 25-29 pA 16 30 30-34 li, 13 27 35 --hs 25 25 50 45 5h, 23 18 41 55--E4, 14 21 BS) 65-74 5} 12 20
75-84, 1 al |
85— 1 a | Gi eam ie OE L@2
There are no exact data concerning births and deaths prior to 1947. No praeneees of cause of death are available,
The Bernice P,. Bishop Museum has kept a file of births and ceaths
, since 19h6. |
YEAR BIRTHS ; DEATHS
co soll M F TOTAL TOTAL
“OUT alae yee 7 1946 is 5 12 Li. | goo wwii JOCr a6 20. 9 | UG SO: ie! St Beh MONE Wes eS (To 5 fl aay capes Bene im elk Novel) i |
‘Epidemiology “ti |
The prominent etiologic factors of the diseases prevalent at Kapin- gamarangi are of considerable epidemiological interest. The commonest chronic disease is "ring worm" due to four varieties of Tinea, The control of these H skin diseases is now frustrated by the household and personal sanitation of al
(ps.
the patients, Cleanliness of the hot water and soap variety is probably the basic factor necessary for progress in medication for these diseases, The families free from fungus infection are those bést equipped for cleanliness. One advantage in a large constant supply of rain water on Touhou would be the proper use of soap permitved by soft water baths, now indulged in during showers and when soap is available, Clotning also requires sterilization by boiling water, at least, and there is abundant fuel to permit proper laundering. Education to the effect that heat would be less destructive than the severe pounding now administered to clothes would yield a return
in both economy and health,
Parasitism is also affected by a lack of proper use of soap and water. Head lice, pin worm and whipworm and possibly hockworm as spread here are subject to some control through care of the family clothing and mats, The usual methods of spread of whipworm and hookworm appear not to be the most
important factors in this community. The regularly recurring importation of certain parasites, including hookworm, appears to be a prominent feature subject to control by treating the carriers at the source of infection (principally Ponape). Disposal of excreta, though subject to improvement, is questionably a cause of spread of hookworm here where there is a low incidence in these who have not been away from the island, and where there is a family grouping of the carriers. The slight spread of hookworm is likely of the direct type which here spreads whipworm, whe
Circumstances that reduce the probability of spread of hookworm by the usual methed of contamination of muddy soil are here the absence of general soil pollution and the absence of mud secured by spreading coarse coral gravel on all working areas and a coarse sand on the main thoroughfares. Rainfall, though in annual quantity sufficient (80 in.) to permit hookworm spread is so intermittent that the soil, even in the few ungravelled areas is dry for months at a time, The few small areas kept wet by laundering and bathing with well water are a possible region of spread of hook worm in the usual manner,
A spot map shows no increased incidence in the immediate vicinity of these areaso
The high incidence of whipworm and low incidence of Ascaris point to some special conditions to account for the deviation from the rule that whip- worm and Ascaris are parallel infections. To favor the low incidence is the isolation of pigs frem each other and from the habitation, This isolation is not complete enough to account entirely for the low incidence, The sty areas are well drained and dry for months at a time.* The watering utensils are Tridacna shells, dry most of the time. There is no contamination of the sty areas by humans. The latest pig stock was imported prior to 1941. The pigs are kept tethered or singly in small rock pens, Ascaris may be absent from the pigs. None was found in ten pig faeces specimens and adjacent soil. Such Ascaris as is brought in from foreign countries by humans would find little opportunity for survival under the prevailing circumstances, It is quite likely that little Ascaris is imported because the traveling population is above the age commonly acquiring Ascaris,
aie
-. * Ascaris requires 30 days in moist soil to become infective.
~26-
The high incidence of acute infections due to visiting boats and returning travellers is a serious economic load for this community. The only apparent help lies in combatting with medical care the acute stages to avoid serious complications, The problem is that of any isolated community which must (preferably gradually) acquire immunity to the world's burden of bacterial and viral flora if it is to survive without return to its state of isolation,
The isolation which permitted Kapingamarangi to remain unvisited by whites until 1871 also accounts for the avoidance of the devastating epidemics which so seriously reduced the population of other atolls. There have been seven epidemics, all following the visit of boats, The first, like all the others attacked the entire population, but” caused only a few deaths. The chief characteristic of this first epidemic was that it caused listlessness and death in a few days.
The second occurred between 1900 and 1910 and is described as a wasting disease with cough.
The third was synchronous with similar epidemics in Ponape and Nukuoro between 1910 and 1.920 and characterized by severe headache,
Neither the fourth or fifth caused any deaths and they had the characteristic manifestations of whooping © cougtl and of mumps, No orchitis
yt *t, gn 4 4 ny ie es dees
The sixth was a bloody ‘dlarrhoea® dat ed as during the Japanese times.
, Only a few people died,
About 1940 a severe sore throat followed by a fine red skin eruption
and peeling of the skin caused the deaths of a few children and no adults, _» his was probably scarlet fever, a
There has been a time when tuberculosis was more prevalent than now, and chronic skin diseases have decreased, The German expedition of 1910 described the populace as nearly all affected by skin disease,
The impression gained is that this very susceptible group of people ‘has weathered many epidemics with much less loss of life than reported in
ie other isolated groups, and that there never has been an epidemic that’ killed large numbers, The largest number dying in any epidemic is probably’ tet or
twelve. The largest number of names with dates of death that could’be* elicited was a group of 6 occurring in the 1922-24 period.
The worst death-dealing condition was starvation in the famine of
,1915-1919 when 60 people died in Kapingamarangi and 40 Kapingas remoyed to
\ '* Ponape in very poor condition died there. It is a reasonable conjectire
Ne that. the deaths would not have occurred had not the local governor “prohibited se the use. ef coconuts for food and | restricted fishing, by ee, men to
work at copra production, ~ enon
tun
Immunization against, small pox by vaccination showed this group in
_, 'dtne 1950 to be entirely non=imittune, ‘substantiating the absence of any history
“ofan epidemic of that disease. No epidemics are reported characteristic of
an
—_—
diphtheria, chicken pox or measles, A large proportion of the population has been immunized against diphtheria (June, 1950) . The other two diseases must be considered as potential serious isd its a8 their importation avoided.
The most fertile field for the application of preventive measures of the early treatment type is that of trauma. Probably no more than a third of the cases of mild trauma are seen at the infirmary in an early stage,
Judging from the number of home made bandages adorning arms, legs, fingers and toes, home treatment still predominates. This is emphasized by the number of cuts and scratches seen in a state of suppuration. Some of the bandages cover the scarification practiced by youth to commemorate their early sex experiences, These wounds are usually sterile, the favorite mark being a cigarette burn on the arm. a
Thorough cleansing and covering of wounds is made more urgent by flies which are immediately attracted by any open wound.
High infant morbidity of acute infections of skin and respiratory tract is associated with long established practices some of which must persist until proper substitutes are available such as good obstetrical practice. Much, however, can be achieved by hot water and soap cleaning of clothes used for the infant and its bed, As simple as such devices appear. their. use requires the changing of long held concepts and despite an evidenced willing-— ness to learn, reasons for change are difficult to grasp. Some idea of the difficulties are suggested by the finding that a medical aid, after. two years of education in basic sciences required instruction in washing hands, cleaning instruments and the handling of sterile material.
Three maternal deaths in the past three years can be understood after observing the obstetrical practices in which, apparently, acquired immunity to tribal bacterial flora replaces asepsis.
Three common insect vectors, flies, mosquitoes and lice are here in sufficient numbers to cause epidemics should the proper disease factor be introduced, Flies now spread wound infection, and the control of this lies in the care of wounds rather than any hope that flies will be eliminated. The mosquitoes are controllable on the principal residential island and are now kept reduced by exposing water tanks to sunlight and by the elimination of all natural casual water containers such as coconut shells. (No ancphareec®)-
lice are subject to greater control than now evidenced. In some families the children's heads are kept clipped, mats are sunned frequently, and kept clean, Adults wash frequently with soap. These families have no obvious lice, The small boys are the most conspicuous bearers of head lice, By well established custom the habits of youth are uncontrolled in this society, Gradual education to the liberal use of soap and hot water.and hair clippers is possible in this intelligent group, It might be carried on through the medical establishment cooperating with the school.
Rat control is apparently quite satisfactorily maintained by the, cats which are no great burden on the food supply because they scavenge all refuse.
ee
Summary
Five months observation, from mid-June to mid-November, 1950, of the health conditions of Kapingamarangi reveals a high degree of adaptation of | the people to a salubrious environment, There is a high incidence of trauma ~ and of infectious disease of mild varieties. There is demonstrated the usual reactions of an isolated group to commerce with foreign groups. These reactions emphasize the inadequacy of certain long established practices to meet the new environmental chanze.
There is indicated some progress toward readaptation tc the imposed changes, Under intelligent leadership, education about modern concepts of disease and disease control is establishing the base for improvements of personal hygiene,.first aid, and general sanitation,
A better rain water supply would improve the opportunity for better personal and family hygiene. Elimination of the dry reef as a toilet, and restriction of area used would appear to offer less opportunity for spread of disease, ti
The daily clean up could be extended to the beach areas with a reduction of fly breeding areas. |
The present direct ocean disposal system is adequate only with a con= tinued small population,
29.
Appendix A
Medical remedies
Wy For
ae
2» For
Co
d.
Ce
pain in the head and hot Pee at:
Leaf buds of the WORO-WORO, Prema obtusifolia are ottled until soft, The pulp is inelosed ” in a small fp piece of cloth and a drop or twn of the juice squeezed into the’ nostrils while inhaling. Tlis treatment is used three times a day for two days if EEN) and, after a three day interval may be repeated for two more days only.
headache, Three yellow leaves of PUKA, Pisonia eranis
Three green leaves of PUKA Three leaflets of TUA KIMOA, Vigna a marina
A husk of coconut that has been soaking in thé sea to rot is soaked in fresh water for a day.
A hole about a font deep is dug in the ‘eround and lined with a leaf of NGAU NGAU, Alocasia macrorrhiza.
The water is squeezed from the coconut husk into the leaf lined hole and the juice of the pounded plant leaves added.
The patient lies on his back, immersing his head in the mixture for an hour at a time for three days. The treatment may be repeated after three days interval.
3. A post partem medication,
ae
Six small plants of NAU, Scaevola frutescens are pounded and
. the juice squeezed into a very young coconut.
be
Le Bor ae
be
Co
All of this is drunk, and a similar mixture each day for three days.
a fall from a tree,
Dark grass plants, roots and all.
Leaves of T'HIA, Clerodendrum inerme.
Enough of a, cae bs to make a handful is crushed in a wooden
bowl 16" long with
three pieces each about 6" long of the growing leaf tip of HALA HALEO (N)*
# (N) indicates a Nukuoran name
,
To
9. 10.
1880s
d, The grated meat of a mature coconut (brown husk) is added to a, b, and c,
e, Three batches of the above are made and the juice placed in a tarpaulin-lined trench big enough to hold the victim and several buckets of water.
f, The patient remains immersed with only nose and mouth exposed until he has a shaking chill,
For prolonged menstruation.
Three sections of the base of TARA TARA, Crinum asiaticum, are pounded and the juice squeezed into water,
The patient sits in the water once a day for three days. The treatment is omitted for three days and repeated if necessary.
Omitted because of its similarity to No. 3.
A remedy for bloody diarrhoea and fever.
a. A stem of fruit of WARANGA, Pipturus argenteus,.
be Six fruits of the HUATORO, (N) RAMUTAKE, Triumfetta procumbens,
c. A three inch square of the outer layer of coconut trunk, These are pounded in a bowl and the juice squeezed through a cloth into a small immature coconut about half full of its juice, The mixture is heated and drunk for the first dose and repeated cold for two more doses.
For hot breath, a. Six small pandanus plants,
b, Three sprouting leaves of the RAKAUTOROTORO, Polypodium scolopendria. A coconut shell that has been rotting in the lagoon for a long time is used as a container for sea water. The plants and leaves are crushed and placed in a piece of coconut cloth. This is dipped as a sponge into the sea water and the patient given a sponge bath daily for three days. This is omitted for three days and repeated if necessary.
Omitted For pain in the stomach (abdomen).
a. Three yellow and three green leaves of T!TOKOTOKONGO, -Messerschmidia argentea, (beach heliotrope). The leaves are pounded and the juice strained into coconut water, This is taken daily for from three to six days.
o/
1a.
12.
15.6
bes
-3]~
For cough.
A piece of vark of T'TOKOTOKONGO, Mésserschmidia argentea, and three yellow and three green ‘leaves % and - ‘thr ee. fruit bracts and three leaf buds of the same plant are pounded, the juice squeezed into coconut water and. the mixture taken for cough »
For chest pain,
TAKAHARU, Atoubyius timorensis is wed in a manner es to ll;
For a Bresaine over “wet lesions the’ aac ae mass from the center
20g, cae "bird nest fern" RAU ae , Sepienium nidus nidus is used.
A poultice for boils.
a, Dark grass
be Three leaves of TUA KIMOA Vigna mayi na «
cs The meat of a mature coconut in che green ie stage, grated, The pounded leaves and the grated nut meat are mixed and used as a pouitice, -
fo bring boils to a head.
a, Three roots of pandanus,” _
bd, Three rocts of KANIU, Ochrosia oppositifolia. Crush and put in coconut’ cloth, dip into ccconut cream and salt
water mixture and rub about the boil towards its center. Repeat for three days.
For an TUCHEne, scaling eruption. A
ae Leaves of RAUTARIA, Teorminalia-samoensis.
‘Pound the leaves and 5: sop around. th the | area. to stop the itching.
‘Remedies for: puncture by the. spine of the NOH, “(eoek fish) which is said to cause severe swelling and pain.
1.
Zo
Catch a NOHU and put the gall bladder ae on the injured spot. This must be done immediately,
a. Warm coconut cream in TUKIMA aa
be Young fruit ‘of NONU , Morinda. sake i tennas with Flowers Stat
on Ene) fruit.
Ce Two ic four rootlets. of ‘eo commute The fruit and rootlets are pounded | aug the juice strained into the coconut cream, — Place foot in mixture se until Besaea.
aie
hee
A remedy for ghonorrhea,
A plant of RAMU TAKE, Triumfetta is stripped of its bark, the stem and leaves pounded and the juice squeezed into water, Each morning a half coconut shell of sea water is drunk. The penis is soaked for one half hour in the plant juice mixture, daily for three days.
REMEDIBS in GENERAL USE
1. NONU, Morinda citrifolia flower buds are eaten by women wishing to wean a nursing infant. The milk becomes bitter cnd the child refuses to nurse,
2. A leaf of HAU, Hibiscus tiliaceus is a favorite cover for any open superficial wound.
3. NGIE, Pemphis acidula bark pounded and squeezed into water. The bitter liquid is taken daily for three days.
4, RAKAU HUNU KIRI, Cassia alata leaves are rubbed on chronic skin infections such as Tinea imbricata,
5. A thread is used to tie the base of warts and similar growths to cause them to drop off,
6, The vepers from steaming concoctions of various leaves are used against various affections of the head,
A cathartic,
The flesh of a sea-urchin with black and white spines is aged for a day, then mixed with some raw and some cooked coconut cream. The mixture is drunk and the limbs and body massaged toward the stomach.
A widely used cathartic, called WARE WARE, A young coconut in the late drinking stage is husked and the top third of the shell removed with the sharp edge of the knife so as to leave a tight cover, The meat and a con-. siderable amount of the brown inner lining of the shell is seraped, and _ mixed with the juice, the covered shell placed in the ground oven. ‘Ihe whole amount is drunk hot,
A charm against spirits.
Two green coconut leaflets are placed shiny sides together. They are snapped by separating the hands rapidly and then knotted, at first with an overhand knot including both leaflets at junction of distal and middle thirds, and then an overhand knot tied with one leaflet adjacent and just distal ta the first knot. This is pinned on the wall near the sick person.
PART IT
A PARASITOLOGIC SURVEY OF KAPINGAMARANGI, 1950
Previous reports of parasitism in the East Carolines indicate in- testinal parasites as almost universal, and few other parasites found in significant numbers, The isolated position and certain customs of Kapin- gamarangi relative to sanitation appeared to offer an opportunity for an exception to the rule,
Fecal. contamination of the residential islands has been contrary to custom for many generations, The most heavily populated areas are free from mud even in heavy rains because. coarse coral gravel is spread as a cover of used areas to prevent muddy surfaces, Thus two of the contributing causes of spread of hookworm and of Ascaris are curtailed.
During July and August of 1950, 283 faeces specimens were brought to the field laboratory in leaf oro coconut shell containers, Samples were removed to tight plastic vials and the remainder of the original specimen discarded (ocean). From the vial sample, iron hematoxylin stained slides were prepared, direct saline suspensions were examined, and zinc sulphate sedimentation-flotation preparations were made by hand centrifuge, Routinely, flotation specimens were examined and thirty-six sediments were examined to rule out operculate eggs, though none were expected,
Originally plans were made for the faeces parasite survey only, however time became available to make a reconnaissance of other parasites. Twenty N. i, H. preparations were made for pin worm, The unexpected absence of Ascaris required explanation, and ten specimens of pig faeces and adjacent soil were examined by saline flotation,
One patient was seen with chills and fever, and similar attacks were said to have occurred in men who had visited Rabaul, Twenty thick and twenty thin blood films were searched for malarial papas tveek and filarial larvae. es
Inspection of patients coming to the infirmary was made for ecto— parasites. Mosquitoes and larvae were collected for identification. It was reported by the-authnorities here that only one kind of mosquito was present before the Japanese came, a day biting variety, and that the bear ng sisi the night biting variety.
A study was made of conditions which might affect parasitism and the observations included in "A Health Survey of Kapingamarangi,"
The population is arranged in the following age groups.
AGE M F TOTAL under 1 3 10 13 1 10 10 20 2 5 5 10 3 5 10 15
AGE M F TOTAL 4 L 6 10 5-9 28 chong ey 59 | 10-14, 2h 26 50 15-19 28 2h 52 20-24, 16 33 h9 25=—29 1h 16 30 30-34 14 13 27 35-hh 25 25 5C 45—54, 23 18 Al 55-64, 14 21 35 65-74 & 12 20 75-84, 1 fy) iL.
SR RE ape en" Total 223 260 183
Results of Faeces Survey (
From 275 subjects, 283 faeces specimens were examined and 100 subjects found to carry one or more parasites, 36.4%. There were two common parasites, hook worm and whip worm,
TABLE 3 OVA OF PARASITES FOUND IN FAECES
PARASITE IN MALES IN FEMALES TOTAL % OF GROUP PARA-
SITIZED Ml
WHIPWORM 35 25 60 21.49
HOOKWORM AL li? 53 21 oi
E, COLI \N 3 7
ENDOLIMAX 3 0 3 Di gil
IODAMOEBA mn e) am 3 Lgl:
TRICHOMONAS 2 A 2 °13
GIARDIA i G 1 3h
ASCARIS e) ue a a3
TOTAL (multiple infections counted as 1) 36.4%
_ In view of the conditions which would tend to prevent hookworm spread, the history of the carriers was investigated. Table 4 indicates a higher incidence in those who have travelled to other atolls such as Ponape where hookworm incidence is known to be high.
TABLE : ae TOTAL GROUP 275 ie TOTAL WITHOUT HOOKWORM avy 80% 3 Hi NUMBER WHO HAVE BEEN AWAY 164 ili WITH HOOKWORM " oo! 48 29% Wig NUMBER NOT AWAY ie Hi NOT AWAY WITH HOOKWORM 11 10% i
==
Although this distribution does not prove that the hookworm was acquired abroad, the fact that 80% of the entire group did not show hookworm would indicate the presence of factors limiting its spread in an mtirely barefoot population and despite the importation of new carriers at fairly frequent intervais,
A spot map of Touhou Tsland indicates a high incidence of more than one infection in the same household,
The low incidence of intestinal protozoa in a population living as intimately as this one is worthy of note, The reason is not obvious, The low incidence in Fonape, the most visited foreign port is a factor, The
requent bathing permitted by access to the sea is probably another, which also contributes to keep the Baaet er raccn by all ENDS to such a relatively low figure,
The only ectoparasite found is the body louse which must be present in nearly every household, if not all, AJ1 small boys with long hair have numereus louse egg cases ee attached to their hair.
Pin worm ova were found in & of 20 NIH, preparations from the anal region of young children. This establishes their presence, but no conclusion can be drawn concerning the incidence,
The absence of malarial parasites and filarial larvae was anticipated, No anephelene mosquitoes were scen although every scpportunity to identify anophelenes was used. There are at least two species of mosquito, a day and a night biting variety. Specimens collected await identification. Complete malaria reconnaissance was not undertaken.
Treatment
The list appended shows those known to have whipworm at the time of the medical field trip from Ponape, Avgust 1950 when medicines were brought for treatment of hockworm, The results of the hookworm treatment are not known because supplies to repeat the tests were exhausted, There is demonstrated in the same table the well known ineffectiveness of oil of chenopodium against whipworm,. The oil was used in March, 1950 as part of a mass treatment for supposed Ascaris infection... Thirty-four of the fifty bearers of whipworm are known to have been treated, A complete list of those treated in March, 1950 is not available, One hundred residents were treated, and medicine left for 100 more which was not used, Therefore, at least 175 of those whose faeces were surveyed had had no recent treatment for ascariasis.
Conclusions
There are two common intestinal parasites in the residents of Kapingamarangi, hookwcrm and whipworm,
The hookworm is probably imported from other islands, especially by the student group returning from Ponape, .
1 aig
=36=
’ Importation of hookworm could be most easily curtailed by treating the group returning from Ponape, before they leave,
Control of the spread of the common intestinal parasites and of
ectoparasites lies in the field of general health education concerning personal and family hygiene.
| Bu APPENDIX
Aiea 5 [iw] © fz] Ex ian S Fy © na fy eR nee ey = 5 gail gg ae! OE Es io a Sa eee 3 files Fx] by x: ea ee es ° | a Siig oe pe G2 G8 85 fe g = tty Ky A Az ae an eae s ne Le baa luhtiee HAKATOPE Yes Yes W 261 Ponape 3~50 Yes Yes Yes 1939 DEHAWAI Yes W 264, Ponape 3-50 Yes Yes Yes 1936 TANGAMI Yes i 268 No 3-50 " In i" TARIPURET Yes W 271 Ponape 3~50 one egg 1935 TAKITAK Mes W202) Benge) ale n n n 1935 KEREN Yes T 277 Truk 3--50 : 4—30 ANTIPATI Yes W 284, Ponape 3~50 ui " " 293i, TIOU Yes T 285 No 3—50 " " " ARIPETI Yes Yes Ai 286 Ponape 3=50 194.6 TANIEL Yes 3H 287 Ponape 3-50 " " It 9-49 DAUMIRI Yes z 291 Ponape 3—50 " UT " 1937 ANION Yes W 292 No 3=50 " " th WASAI Yes W 293 No 3-50 " tf mn TIMOUET Yes W 29h, Ponape 3-50 t! " " 1935 SIMATI Yes Yes x 295 Ponape 3-50 " " " 1949 NIMISIO Yes Yes ak 296 No 3-50 " " " YESIKE Yes Yes T 300 Now in Ponape TIRONGORONGO Yes dt 301 Ponape 3=50 " wu ul 1939
NAME KIKINE PUREIKI LUISI
MATINIA KOULUA
TAITOS PELENES
TIMOTI
JARI
DIENEMANU
DILAUE
LIETA
ISE LIAA HEKENOHO TOKORAT SEMETI LUI RAIMON
KASTOR
HOOKWORM
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes |
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
WHIPWORM
Yes
Yes
Yes Yes
Yes Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ISLAND
REFERENCE NUMBER
307 S12 316
319 320
323 326 328
333 339 358
359 361
362
365
216
- 22
222
22h
225
4G DATE Last &
Be ne 2 6 oS = =a = oh No 3-50 8-23/50 Ponape 3-50 1947 No 3-50 Ponape 3-50 June-50 Now in Ponape No 3-50 Ponape 3-50 1946 No 3-50 No 3-50 Truk 3-50 41931 No 3-50 Ponape 3-50 12-1949 Ponape 3-50 1939 Nukuor 3-50 1949 Ponape 3-50 1949 Ponape 3-50 1949 Ponape: 3-50 1949 Ponape No 1945 Ponape 3-50 1939
SODIUM SULPHATE
TETRACHLOR
ETHYLENE
Yes
MAG. SULF.
NAME KIMURA
LUCAS KATARINA
MASUKO MISERI
RISE
TAWHERA RIMI
JOHANIS URAK
ENIMA MALIKUTI
DEDUO NOWA
PILIMON TIONI
HUSAKO
LETI SIANA TURUKO
HOOKWO RM
v6
@ “
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
WHIPWORM
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ISLAND
REFERENCE NUMBER
228
229
231
Ponape
1945
Ponape
TREATMENT
DATE LAST
t Wa oe)
TE Sai oO
3-50
3=50
June 1949 3-50
Ponape 19390
Ponape
S-19LL,
_ Ponape 1932
No
Now in
3-50
3=50
3-50 3-50 3290
Boe
SODIUM SULPHATE
K @ a)
wT
Ponape
iy
Now in Ponape
3-50 31950 350
3-50 3-50
!
'!
t!
TETRACHIOR
ETHYLENE
Ke @ o
i : -40- | Ee e : Hi | Be. = A eS Bee Gs HH fo) wy z= <3 Q ase . Hb oe es 5 4 ae Aas Aan SS ral ES g Hh ie ih SUSANA Yes L04 No 3-50 Yés . © Yes Yes i TEIT Yes T 408 No 3-1950 " 1 Ja | TUHURU’ Yes me aoo eye: gets. Pn Sgaesti! Hi fremt Yes Yes. T 41d). Mulmor 3-1950 n ul Gis Na 81949 KASUKO Yes geal Ponape No nn " " 1935 : ENELTA li T , .B8e Ascaris in Ponape 1 MIKAR Yes Yes T 416 June 1950? Now in Ponape | KORONIKA Yes 1) ee Ponape, 350° Wes" Yes Yeu G June 1938 PIKITI. Yes W 422 Ponape 3-50 " " " ibe 2-1946 KARATI Yes T 426 Truk 3-50 " " r ; 3 6-17 i HANAKO Yes T 429 Ponape 3-50 tt " t" ay if ~h9 ate YOSITARO Yes peas) Pea > No i Ligaen BOMUKALAN Yes A 442 | Nukuor = -3-50_ " " tt 1946 MOTOHENI Yes... Yes £ L448 Ponape 3-50 | Ysad Lol " rime 1946 PONTAIK Yes Yes i JAAS) No 3-50 holy, y a KOITI Yes Yes ab 450 Now in Ponape DERUITI He Yes 451 Ponape BasOr a iain} 1 iy 1949 ele ) i TAMASUITI Yes 453 Ponape 3-50 Ho ae i" 1946: rch KINTARO Yes 455 Ponape No Oi nl " 158-50 SIRO I Yes 459 ELEATI Yes 4,62 Ponape No " ieee tt ag 15-8-50 Hn TEKEWO Yes -.. 1,63 Ponape No |) " u u ve SUPERE Yes Yes 428 | Ni) TOMIKTI Yes 275 i
34 with whipworm had been treated with oil of chenopod
PART. III
‘ BLOOD GROUPS OF THE KAPINGAS, NOVEMBER 1950
Residents of Kapingamarangi whose genealogies are recorded in the files of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum were bleod grouped during June, July and fon os iy 1990«
Two hundred were grouped with Anti A and Anti B serum, Of this group, 153 were tested with Anti Rj, Anti rh', Anti rh" and Anti hr? sera, Of these, 54 were tested with Anti On and Anti N SCLa 4
Subjects were selected in the following categories, (I) Those thoroughly documented A "Pure Kapinga" (II) Those thoroughly accumentad as having foreign ancestors, (111) Certain family groups, |
. The Rh typings were done by the test tube, water~bath, centrifuge method, The A-B groupings and the M-N typings were done by the depression slide method. Two percent saline wasned celis were used for all tests.
Lack of refrigeration required the greatest caution to prevent con— tamination of the test serum. The Anti N serum failed one month after it was first cpened, The Anti hr? serum failed after six weeks. The Anti A and Anti B sera were still good after 4, months though the Anti B was slightly weaker ,
Control tests were made at intervals to conserve serum. When a control test showed a weakening of a serum, tests done subsequent to the previous control were discarded,
Results
Lack of proper storage facilities and insufficient sera for constant controis limit the conclusion concerning M or N and Rh occurrence, There were found MN, M, and N reactors and all tested were Rh posttiuey The results of the AB grouping appear in the tables,
Pure Kapinga Group AB ae B ) TOTALS Male © L0 0 L7 87 Female 0) 32) O 5D 82 TOTALS 36 72: 0 97 169
sige |
Mixed Ancestry
Group AB A B ¢) TOTALS
Male — 6) 6 § 4 18
Female 2 4 3 4 13
TOTALS 2 aia) ann 8 ZL There were 10 subjects with known white ancestry
Group AB A B 0 TOTAL
Number cl 4 5 f) 10
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
No, 21 Notes on Ngaruangl and Kayangel Atolls, Palau Islands
by J. Le Gressitt
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences——National Research Council
Washington, D. C.
NOTES ON NGARUANGI, AND KAYANGEL ATOLLS, PALAU ISLANDS
by J. L. Gressitt
NGARUANGL
Ngaruangl is an incipient atoll which includes the northernmost land of the Palau Islands. It is situated about eight kilometers north- west of Kayangel Atoll and 39 kilometers north of Babelthuap Island. Ngaruangl has a reef which is broadly oval, lorigest north and south, and about 5,4 by 2.7 kilometers in size. The reef has an opening at the northern end, with the reef extending farther north on the west side of the entrance. ‘The lagoon is fairly shallow, being mostly less than three fathoms in depth, and having some coral heads, On the east side of the reef the sea bottom slopes gradually at first, from the reef platforn, then suddenly. Soundings between Ngaruangl and Kayangel are mostly between 344 and 430 fathoms, beyond two kilometers off of either reef, The ccean directly north of Ngaruangl is mostly. from six to 23 fathoms in depth,
Ngaruangl reef has but a single small islet, near the middle of the east side, In the Carolines, the majority of the atoll islets are on the east sides of the reefs, the prevailing winds being from the east, This islet is about 80 meters north and south, and about 35 meters east and west. It is slightly curved on its eastern, seaward side, and strongly curved on the lagoon side. It is broadest north of the ceriter and considerably tapered at the southern end. The islet consists almost entirely of pieces of rough coral rock thrown say by surf. Most of the pieces are rough or sharp and are largely of the Acropora reticulata type, or of similar form, The majority range from 15 to 60 centimeters, or more, in diameter. Sand and sandy gravel are limited to the lagoon side and the southern tip. The latter is of coral gravel and sand, dnd its lagoon shore, north nearly to the middle of the island, has a narrow sand beach with coral fragments on the upper portion. The coral rocks are piled higher near the borders of the main portion of the islet and thus the central portion is lower, but quite uneven, The altitude is a little less than one meter above high tide level, A few logs have been washed up on the shore on both east and west sides. Just south of the center is a tripod erected of poles. The reef surface seaward of the islet is gently sloping, but irregular and with rough coral rock or coral fragments.
There is no vegetation on the islet. Animal life is represented by numerous marine crane flies, probaoly Limonia, subgenus Dicranomyia. Terns were abundant on the islet, but no nests were observed.
Near the north end of the reef, close to the opening to the lagoon, a Japanese freighter, bombed during the war, has been washed up on the reef, A short distance to the northwest of it there is either a large coral boulder or a detached portion of the ship on the reef, On the southwestern portion of the reef there are two or three coral boulders washed Up.
ahs
wit
oo
Ngaruang! presents an interesting step in the development of an atoll, with the reef well develoned and complete except for the single opening, and with a single small islet in an early stage of development, with very little sand, no soil and no vegetation, It may be assumed that if” vegetation and additional sand were present earlier, they must have been washed away in storms, and that plants may reappear within the space of ten or more years,*
cee ee ee ee eee eee
ences (Die Palau-Inseln in der Stdsee, Jour. Mus. Godeffroy 1(4):
1-62, 1873) says, translated, on p, 32, "Northwest of Kayangel is a reef which marks the place, according to the traditions, where the land of Ngarvangl was, but which was destroyed by the sea." And on p. 33, "The Kayangel Group; it was once subject to Ngaruangl...." On p. 47 a legend is recounted, "For a long time there was to the northwest of Kayangel a great beautiful land, and its inhabitants ruled Kayangel....land....called Ngaruangl...," As'a result of magic performed by a Kayangel. man who had lost his son at the’hands of the Ngaruangl people: "The heavens became frightfully dark, and a storm of unprecedented violence raged over all of Palau. Nearuang] sank into the deep sea and four other small lands on the east side of Palau were likewise swallowed by the waves....."
These beliefs and legends may have no factual basis, but on the other hand, they are suggestive and might justify careful examination of the reefs : jof Nearuanel for evidence of former larger islets.--Editor's note,
PLANTS OF KAYANGEL
The following plants were collected or observed on Kayangel Atoll on December 16, 1952 by J. L. Gressitt.' The specimens taken were identified by Heike, Fosberg. and are deposited in the U. S. National Herbarium. Numbers 1-8 are from Ngariungs Islet, 9-43b from Ngajangel Islet, Those asterisked were .seen..on both Ngajangel and Ngariungs islets, the remainder only on Ngajangel. The unnumbered -ones were seen but not collected. Since these observations were made on a very short visit it is probable that the flora includes many more species not recorded here.
' * Asplenium nidus L., no. 12 Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott, no. 37 (The taxonomy of this
species is unsatisfactory. Pacific plants may be something else.)
N. hirsutula (Forst.) Presl, no. 13 (Very young plant, identification uncertain.)
Polypodium’scolopendria Burm. f., no. 36
Cycas (cireinadlasiwie,)ino, /2i)
ee
* Pandanus tectorius Park., no. 18
3
+
oS
~
Digitaria longissima Mez, no, 4f
D. pruriens var., no. 43a
D. timorensis (Kunth) Balansa, no. 13b Eragrostis amabilis (L.) W. & A., no, 42 Ischaemum muticum L., no, 4l
Lepturus repens (Forst.) R. Br., no. 3h Saccharum officinarum L.
Areca cathecu L.
Cocos nucifera L.
Alocasia macrorrhiza (L.) Schott Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Cyrtosperma chamissonis (Schott) Merr.
Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engi., nos. 10, 16 (No. 16 is a young plant and its identity is not certain.)
Xanthosoma sagittifolium Schott Rhoeo discolor (L'Herit.) Hance Cordyline terminalis (L.) Kunth — Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) 0. Ktze, Musa paradisiaca L,
M. sapentum L,
Piper betle L.
Artocarpus altilis (Park.) Fosb. Ficus senfftiana Warb., no. 14
Elatostema calcareum Merr., no, 25 (Palau material is with some doubt referred here.)
Fleurya ruderalis (Forst.) Gaud. ex Wedd., no. 22 (Specimen fragmentary, determination doubtful.)
Pipturus argenteus (Forst.) Wedd., no. 15
*
*
*
miles
Achyranthes aspera L., no, 33
Pisonia grandis R. Br., nos. 1, 5
Portulaca samoensis v. Poelln., no. 23 Cassytha filiformis L., no. 7
Hernandia sonora Le
Crataeva speciosa Volk., no, 9
Canavalia microcarpa (DC,) Piper, no. 24 Mucuna sp.
Vigna marina (Burm.) Merr., no. 11
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle, - (Lime) C. sinensis (L,) Osb. (Large round green orange) Acalypha amentacea var., nos. 19, 39
Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl.
Euphorbia chamissonis (Kl. & Gke.) Boiss., no. & Hanthot esculenta Crantz
Phyllanthus niruri L,
Triumfetta procumbens Forst., no, 32
Hibiscus tiiiaceus L.
Thespesia populnea (L,) Sol. ex Corr. Calophyllum inophyllum L,
Carica papaya L,
Cucurbita sp.
Terminalia samoensis Rech., no. 6 Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz, no. 4
Psidium guajava L,
Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms no. 28 (Cultivated as hedge plant.)
128 scutellaria (Burm, f.) Fosb. (Cultivated as hedge plant.)
sib,
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb., no. 35
Ochrosia oppositifolia (Lam.) K. Schum., nos. 17, 38 (No. 38 is sterile, determination doubtful.)
Plumeria rubra L. Ipomoea batatas L.
* Messerschmidia argentea (L. f.) Johnst., no. 3 Clerodendrum speciosissimum Van Geert, no, 20 Asystasia blumei Nees, no- 26
* Scaevola frutescens (Mill.) Krause, no, 2 Wedelia biflora (L,) DC., no. 39
An unidentified seedling, no, 31
ATOLL RESFARCH BULIETIN
Se ee eee see
No. 22 Simmary of Information on Atoll Soils
|°)" an E. L, Stone, Jr,
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council
Washington, D. C,
SUMMARY OF INFORMATION ON ATOLL SOILS by We
FE. L. Stone, Jr.
Our knowledge of atoll soils is still fragmentary and the following relates. particularly to wet etolls, which nave been nore extensively studied than dry atolls. The nature of etoll soils is closely linked to the geological material re on which they formed. These soils are extrewely immature, usually having A-C profiles dominated by calcium and magnesium carbonates and with texture but rl littie modified from that of the original material. This immaturity is in part | a consequence of their limited age, wnich is presumably less than that of the i xerothermic period, end of the ccntinual disturbance by storms and typhoons. a The frequent rejuvenation by storms is one of the major features of the land surface. Thus there nas heen little soil development in the usval serse, and the characteristics of the w2il-drained soils, in so far as they differ from | geological materials, are due cniefly to organic matter accumulation and as-— sociated chemical chenges.
I General: Despite immaturity, the differences in soils end pnysiography are suificient to give rise to a variety of habitats. The expression of these in the vegetation, however, is in part concealed by the limited flora. Hs This sometimes leads to a specious appearance of uniformity. at
Il Physical Nature of the Parent Material: The primary sources of land ma- WM: terial are, of course, the reef organisms but in at least a few instances foreign material may occur. On Rose Atoll basalt has been found and pumice has been 4 reportec common on a number of atoils.
The mode of land formation has been treated more fully by geologists and | i need not be repeated here although it is obvious that particle size distribu- tion and elevation of the land surface strongly influence subsequent soil de- velopment. Frequently materials deposited along. the seaward shores are coarse- textured and porous. Consequently, as the data of Cox indicate, the ground water lens may have a lower head and greater salinity on the seaward side as contrasted with the lagoon shore, which is commonly comvosed of finer materials.
Although differences in texture of the deposits affect ground water move- ment and plant growth, all are sufficiently coarse to be freely pervious to air i) and water. The moisture holding capacity of the mineral soil is low, increasing the effect of rainfall distribution and ground water. Where fresh water is H available at shallow depths textural considerations obviously do not have the ui Significance for deep-rooted plants that they often have elsewhere. Further- i more, it is probable that the porosity of weathered coral and reef rock increases ql their moisture-holding capacity, as compared with that of solid fragments of } Similar size. anh
Ili Chemical Nature of the Parent Material: Analyses of the reef organisms, as by Clark and \Vlheeler, indicate that calcium carbonate, while >redominant, is by no means the only compound of importance in their composition. Some of the Lithothamion group may contain up to 25% magnesium carbonate and some of the Foraminifera up to 11%. Although phosphorus is generally low, some of the Crustacea may contain up to 27% calcium phosphate in their skeletons and there are appreciable amounts in some of the Aicyonarian corais. Nine semples of non-phosphatic subsoils from Arno contain from .01 to .02% phosphorus. Soluble potassium is found in moderate amounts whenever appreciable exchange capacity is. present. Traces of most elements are of course to be expected by reason of their presence in sea water. i
As a source of plant nutrients these materials have certain apparent advan- tages and disadvantages. The calcareous medium tends to be favorable for some nitrogen-fixing legumes and Azotobacter. However, it limits availabilit iy Of certain nutrients such as iron, of which there is a conspicuous deficiency when— ever organic matter content in the soil is low.
IV Soil Formation and Properties: These can not be considered apart from climatic influences, particularly 4% those of rainfail. Not only the amount but the constancy.of rainfall is of prime importance, with the effect of variation being more drastic the lesser the amount. The effects of variation are of particular consequence on narrow islan@s where the nature of the ground water lens is more readily affected by short droughts. Rainfall obviously affects the composition of the ground water and the rapidity of leaching of salts formed in the soil and those added by spray. To date conductivity measurements seidom show sufficient concentration of salts in the surface soil to be injur-— ious to the plants, although these do not represent the temporary conditions that may result from flooding or heavy spray during severe storms.
Mere descriptions and analyses of a variety of profiles are often of limited value until the soils can be classified and erranged into an actval or inferred sequence related to time or developmental stages. Many of the daca for well— drained soils on eee and Onotoa can be described by such a sequence:
“Tt is evident that ane initial development of vegetation is somewhat analo- gous to lifting one's self by the bootstraps; plant growth is required to create organic matter which in turn supplies nitrogen, renders certain nutrients avail- able, etc., to permit additional growth. In the early stages following colo- nization by hardy plants, each gain in amount of organic substance tends to favor greater and more diverse vegetational development. Ultimately the extent of this development is reflected in the soil profile. Thus a sequence may he observed extending from the wholly unaffected beach sand or boulder rampart of the island margins to the dark surface soils beneath the lush vegetation of the island interiors. Although in any one transect such a sequence is usually as- sociated with time of development, other factors such as exposure, rainfall, groundwater, etc., surely influence the rate and presumably the maximum stage of development attainable. The conventionai soil type designations employed | tentatively on Arno can be used to designate various bands in this hypothetical developmental sequence on moist atolis. Figure 1 shows some features of pro- files representing successive positions in such a sequence.
Bie)
Figure 2 illustrates the inferred sequence from shore to interior and the bike effects associated with increasing organic matter content. In the synthetic | transect the Onotoa profile appears to agree generally with those from Arno atoll. ;
The consideration of organic matter is almost inseparable from that of ni- trogen since the two are linked in the soil with an OM/N ration of between 20:1 and 30:1. Apart from growth effects, in the absence of nitrogen additions of organic substance alone do not result in formation of "humus" and hence or- ganic matter accumulation. The very considerable accumulations illustrated by Figure 2 direct attention to the sources of nitrogen. Apart from rainfall four are knom: (1) Flotsam acd dead marine organisms are presumably of signif- icance only to the early stages of strand vegetation. (2) Legumes, Sophora, Canavalia, and Vigna are often common in the earlier stages of the sequence but only Intsia persists in quantity in the dense forest. (3) The contribution of nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae is unknown although certain terrestial algae are abundant. Azotobacter is common in certain Arno collections (Lochhead) and presumably would be favored by the highly organic calcareous substrate. (4) Observations suggest that sea~birds may add appreciable amounts of nitrogen to the land surface generally, apart from the marked guano or phosphate areas. High amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus found in sparsely vegetated areas on dry Canton Island are attributed to nesting birds (MacDaniels, Hatheway).
There are no systematic studies of organic matter decomposition but vigorous faunal activity by termites, snails, earthworms, crustacea, etc., (Usinger and LaRivers) rapidly reduce organic residues. Incorporation of organic matter may also be accomplished by grasses and the dense root mat of the coconut. Well- drained atoll soils seem to be marked by a sharply delimited zone of mixing, with slight organic staining of the deeper layers only in the older profiles. Darker layers occuring at depth usually indicate profile burial, as by dunes, typhoon debris, etc. Deep profiles may originate by continuous additions, as of wind-—blown sand to a vegetated surface, and probably also in certain imper- fectly drained situations.
As indicated by Figures 1 and 2, the depth of the organic layer tends to in- crease with age but the most marked effect is in percentage composition. Rather rough estimates indicate that the dark soils from Arno contain at least 2,000,000 Hi lbs. organic matter per acre. It appears likely that a few centuries may have been required for such accumulation and there is no evidence of any rapid de- an cline in the long occupied areas of Arno Island.
In non-saline atoll soils reaction commonly ranges between pH 7 and 9, with the higher values presumably influenced by magnesium carbonate. Moderate but consistent shifts in soil reaction are associated with the effects of organic matter. Species unsuited to an alkaline substrate may be favored further by localized pockets of organic matter, decaying wood, etc., of lower reaction.
A slightly acid reaction also characterizes some peats.
ae a a
a antines mgr = ——SS——
Of the mineral nutrients phosphorus occupies a special position because of the probable significance of sea-birds in the phosphorus cycle of land areas,
| a |
as well as in numerous localized accumulations, A possible role of phosphorus deficiency in the "laora" disturbance of coconut has been conjectured but evi- dence is as yet incomplete. An effect of copra cropping on phosphorus removal from the land has been suggested.
Fosberg's study of the ecological factors involved in phosphorus accumula- tion may solve a number of questions on phosphate "rock" and "hardpan", and perhaps on nitrogen accumulation in the dark soils also. In.addition to their effects in situ, such deposits might weil be reworked, notably enriching new beach materials.
Exchangeable for extractable) potassium tends to increase with the exchange capacity of organic matter but it is markedly affected by leaching and by con- tact with salt water. Under dry conditions evaporetion may concentrate potas— sium, as well as nitrate nitrogen, at the soil surface but the high values of such samples. (e. Be Bikini) are not indicative of the. entire soil.
Of the oinen plant nutrients caleiun and magnesium are, of course, abundant, and little is known of the precise status of many "minor" elements. Iron deficiency is common in many planta, and symptoms on introduced plants Stes t their susceptibility to other deficiencies,
Observations on soil organisms from Arno Atoll show appreciable numbers and the expected relationships between numbers and organic matter content. UDeter- mination of species and groups (Lochhead, Martin) indicate that the fungal and bacterial flora are cosmopolitan.
Losses from leaching can be assumed except on the driest atolls. Some re- covery from the groundwater by vegetation is probable but is lim’ted by the. | level of maximum evaporation, (presumably about 60") and the selectivity of _ plant roots. A continuing loss of caicium and magnesium carbonates is obvious but visible solution seems limited to the surface layers. Softening and re- duction of large fragments is marked in the surface Layers of the older soils.
Although the undisturbed well- drained type of profile is taken as a model, numerous exceptions and anomolies occur as a result of typhoons, shoreline activity, etc. Freshwater and mangrove Beate, phosphate rock,. exposed beach rock, etc. provide numerous photo situet tions for vegetational develop- ene
Students of atoll soils and ecology mst add to their interest of vegeta- tional succession a recognition of the frequent and drastic affects of. | catastrophe, of the influence of primitive man and his recent congeners, and, ., of the self-limiting nature of many formative process. as 45 li! «oh gues
The economic aspects of atoll soils are obvious, at leest in outline. With-.. ..
in the limits set by climate, groundwater and exposure (as to spray). the. pro--. ductive capabilities and resporisiveness of soils are set by texture, organic matter status, phosphate influences and perhaps by certain effects. Qf ageuon history such as are associated with the "laora" disease, Many - of these are subject to mapping, cGescription or interpretation for use in any appraisal of atoll land productivity.
BAS
(oury) pues AweoT cuty °¢ li tz
See 5 ie -_— SEO ee ee
pe eee NO
.
st yo A : ae REne 2S Soe Seer eeceer “A erates, EO ooh Oo" aie Oe Ge 3 % - UssOIYIN Te0]
Y= 10972 IT oTue3.19 = ae ST cena 18 6 9 €
a ee ee cee Es eae ee! | cos eens Seat emai “4 OF
AAMAmM-Heort
Ai. Ce a en eee ae | Se ears: | eee Seema Fx 9
9 S ui € 2 r OOOT X Wess aed tSung
I 4
(OUty) pues efoTys “g
I +4) QT | ! ! 0 (Len ay AE See ee Sa + Si eae: eT teyoeg Ne’ r 9 4) WO} /. a a SS We ere a eg Fe a Ba 2 =t6) =
ap ote St % - USSOIZTIN TeqOL
g - Teqqey opuesIo
c. a H 0 N I Ns Ce i een pe oe SE eet as ee I ae eek pee qd pues yoesg *y | l ‘ ! ! Ul en | ee i Ee eee aie ep) = i gee os Eg SE onere ees ft O Wouvu pay
H vee T
QOOOT X Weis zed Taig ooo0fO0O0T X wets sed etie4oeg
Figure 2.--Synthetic sequence of soil development and soil properties.
Shioya Shioya loamy Arno loamy Arno gravelly sand sand send loamy sand Beach ' \ sand HT ---- “ 7 a Profile 1h, 27 GOC 1 Profile 25 Profile 6 Arno Onotoa Arno Arno | i i | O “he ibs Sg? eee aS. PGS Es ST NA aca oon ore ay DEO UME one ie a eae eT ise sae ame er | Se oat % OM { X { Organic 5 7 pel oars rs Matter=4, = Ph Se |. % O-6" ae au Se TU) ERO GR ae | 7 t Genth 15°71 ieee | ‘15 inches 20 ~! = ee 4 (0 NO3-N Total .25 95° Lbs/ Nitro- ley. gen -— °20 | P20 ; % a8 i by 5 he 1.00 4 - 100 7.0 PH 8.0 - 1 0 ies @) < AS ESD A nr RS Extracta-— a Tait | at
or K, 1007 Ve ee lbs/Acre 7 ra 4 150 i. @) > a,
]
200 ~ rh
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
No. 23 Vegetation of Central Pacific Atolls, A Brief Summary
by F, R. Fosberg
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD
National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council
Washington, D,. C,
¢
VEGETATION OF CENTRAL PACIFIC ATOLLS, A BRIEF summary
by 2 F, R. Fosberg
Ee ale aa 1 Publication authorized by the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. 2 Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey.
ee
Contents
Page
Introduction aL The atoll habitat 1 Colonization by plants 3 Succession or vegetational change 6 1. Usual development of vegetation 6
2. Effects of catastrophe and instability g
3. Effects of climatic fluctuations 9 4. Changes caused by Man 10 Principal types of vegetation and their variations aS. 1. Coconut groves and plantations 43
2. Breadfruit groves 13
3. Mixed forest 14
a. Pisonia forest 14
b. Ochrosia forest j 5
c. Pandanus forest 15
d. Messerschmidia forest 16
e. Cordia forest 16
f. Barringtonia forest 16
4. Pemphis forest 16
5, Mangrove forest 17
6. Beach scrub 17
7. Miscellaneous scrub types ay)
8. lLepturus grassland 18
9. Other natural herb types 18 10. Secondary herbaceous types 18 11. Bogs and marshes 19 12. Terrestrial algal vegetation 20 a. surface discoloration on limestone rocks 20
b. Algal crust on coral sand 20
13. Marine seed—plant vegetation al 14. Marine algal vegetation Zu a. Algal ridge Zale
b. The moat 22
c. The reef flat 22
d. The lagoon reef flat 22
e. The passage between islets 22
f. The leeward reef where there are no islands 22
ge The lagoon bottom 23 Vegetational patterns 23 Most needed future studies 24
Bibliography 25
VEGETATION OF CENTRAL PACIFIC ATOLLS, A BRIEF sumary+
by F. R. Fosberg@ -Introduction
_One of the primary purposes of the meeting on Atoll Soils and Vegetation, held in St. Louis in December, 1952, was to.summarize the results, insofar as vegetation is concerned, of the three Pacific Science Board atoll investigations, undertaken on Arno, Onotoa, and Raroia atolls, along with results of recent expeditions to the Marshall Islands: by William Randolph Taylor and F, Rk. Fosberg, Formal papers were not pre- pared for this meeting, nor was a verbatim record kept of the discussion. It seems worth-while to briefly summarize what is known of Pacific atoll. vegetation in light of the results of the St. Louis meeting and of other significant studies that have been made. No attempt will be made, how-. ever, at this time to digest the complete literature on the subject.
_ Work is being done on such a project, but it will require much more time. -.
_Unfortunately the reports on the vegetation of Onotoa and Raroia ~ have not yet been submitted, so that the greater part of the following summary is based on studies in the Marshall Islands. The vegetation of some of these islands has been observed by Bryan in 1944, Taylor in 1946, Stone and Anderson in 1950, Hatheway in 1952, and Fosberg in 1946, 1950, 1951, and 1952, Detailed notes are available for Arno, Bikini, Iniwetok, Rongerik, Rongelap, Pokak, Bikas, Utirik, Taka, Ailux, Jema, Likiep, Lae, Ujae, Wotho, Ujelang, and parts of Kwajalein, with less satisfactory observations on Majuro, Jaluit, and Ailinglapalap. Fairly good:information is available on Nomwin, Kapingamarangi, Nukuoro, Satawan, and Lukunor in the Carolines, also some on Kayangel and Fingelap. The only comprehensive modern study of atoll vegetation, other than those mentioned above, whose results are available, is that of Christophersen on the: Whippoorwill Expedition in 1924 (Christophersen 1927). Incidental to other work some notes on vegetation on the southeastern Pacific and a few central :Pacific atolls were made by St. John and Fosberg in 1934 and.:on Christmas Island by Fosberg in 1936, Only a few of these are published (St. John and» Fosberg 1937, Fosberg 1937, Fosberg and St. John 1952), Hatheway investigated Canton Island on short visits in 1950 and 1951 and RoePanee an account that is still unpublished.
The Atoll Habitat
Atolls are reefs of organic limestone that are partly, intermittently, or ‘completely covered with water, and on which there are islets or islands made up of accumulations of limestone debris, loose or consolidated, and occasional remnants of former higher reef surfaces, These islets are usually not more than two or three meters above high-tide level, sometimes
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1 Publication authorized by the Director, U. S. Geological Survey
2 Botanist, U. S. Geological Survey,
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much less than this; occasionally storm-built rubble or boulder ridges and wind-deposited dunes rise to somewhat higher elevations. The highest of these wind-deposited features is Jne's Hill, a dune on Christmas Island, which is variously reported to be as much as fifteen meters, Where the surface of these islets is more than a few dm. above mean tide level the drainage is perfect, down to this level. From a few cm. above mean tide to somewhat below it, lens-shaped bodies of fresh to brackish ground water lie in the porous material of the islands, floating on the surface of the salt water which otherwise permeates these structures and held there in equilibrium by friction with the solid material.
Since the atolls are practically entirely within the tropics, and also are surrounded by water, there is not much temperature variation. Rainfall and winds , however, show quite a diversity. Rainfall ranges from extremely scanty in the belt of atolls along the equator and in the northern Marshalls and southern Gilberts to very heavy in the southern Marshalls and Caroline atolls, Most of the atolls, of course, have a moderately wet climate. In some, though the total average rainfall may be moderate, the erratic precipitation makes the total figures give a false impression. Also, the porous nature of the substratum makes comparison with regions of ordinary soil difficult. For example, Pokak Atoll, with rainfall comparable to that of parts of the eastern United States, has the aspect, vegetationally, of a semidesert. Winds are important in three main respects. The drying power of a steady fairly strong breeze, even after it has blown over the sea for great distances, is extreme, and the effects of wind on the | vegetation in the trade wind belts are very obvious, It is never difficult to tell which side of an atoll islet is the windward side, as the vegetation is commonly "wind-sheared" (probably more correctly spray-sheared in many cases) in an inclined plane down to the top of the beach. On the leeward side the edge of the vegetation is usually perpendicular or rounded, The salt carried in spray by winds undoubtedly has a very important effect on the vegetation. There have been no actual measurements of this, either as to quantity or effects, however. The absence or rarity of certain species of plants on the windward sides of islets in windy belts may very well be due to this salt accumulation. The third climatic factor of great significance is the occurrence of typhoons or hurricanes, These powerful storms create and destroy land, drench the land with salt water, remove vegetation, modify it, and indirectly affect it through changing the human population. They create a type of long-term instability of the habitat that is reflected in the character of the vegetation in several ways which are apparent to the observer, but which must be studied more critically than they have yet been to be understood. in some of the Marshalls, considerable areas have been denuded of their vegetation or most of it by: ‘relatively recent typhoons.
The age of ‘these islands is an important consideration, aceieieonaly:, It is possibly ascertainable, within certain limits, through knowledge of the relatively recent eustatic fluctuations of sea level, though there is some difference of opinion on both the time and nature of these fluctuations. The current idea seems to be that a period of higher levels, perhaps two meters above the present stand, occurred several thousand or up to five thousand years ago, during the so-called post-glacial "xerothermic period" or "climatic optimum," If such a higher sea level did exist, it might not
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be necessary to regard ecological reasons only, as responsible for the impoverished floras of coral atolls. It may well be that dry land did not exist on most atolls at that period, and that these floras have come into existence through accumulation of chance seaborne and airborne colonists in a period as short as five thousand years.
In the biotic environment, sea-birds, land-crustacea, and man are the three most conspicuous groups and probably the most important, ecologically. The birds played a most important part in making the habitat favorable for plants and in maintaining it so, by additions of phosphatic and nitrogenous material, until they were driven away from most places by man. Land crabs and hermit crabs, present in myriads on most atolls, promptly reduce organic “matter of most sorts to soil, tending to make the habitat suitable for other than the most extreme pioneer species of plants. They must also play an important role in mixing soils, because of their burrowing habits, bringing up deposited and unaltered materials and burying vegetable debris (Wood- Jones, 1910). Dr. Otto Degener (conversation, 1950) contends, also, that the hermit crabs are important in devouring seedlings of plants and thus impoverishing the vegetation, This has not been noted by other investigators, though they have been seen occasionally eating leaves from living plants. Man has, ever since his arrival, been an extremely destructive agent, especially toward indigenous forest vegetation. He has, of course, replaced it with coconut and breadfruit plantations and their attendant weed species; he has contributed a host of exotic weeds; and he has upset the phosphate balance both by driving away the sea~birds and by exporting untold quantities of copra, which has a high phosphorous content. He also, in many places, burns the organic matter which would ordinarily go to build up the soil, Where he exists in large populations, he may reverse these processes to some extent by composting and fertilizing, .
Colonization by Plants
Plant seeds may be brought to an atoll islet by water, wind, on the feet, plumage, or in the stomachs of birds, or by man, accidentally or deliberately. One case has been observed by Dr. Kenneth Emory on Kapingamarangi of a portion of a tree drifting ashore while still alive and taking root. An examination of the floras indicates that, before the coming of Europeans, the water was probably much the most’ effective means of transport. Most of the plants possess adaptatinns for floating their seeds across even large expanses of water, ~
The plants that make up almost the entire indigenous floras of atolls are those. that constitute the strand floras. of high islands, continents, and other coral islands,, and they are mostly very widespread, There are very few species confined to. or even principally found on atolls.
Contrasted ‘with the probable situation. on. 1 high islands, successful ‘establishment of transported plants on atoll islands is a very frequent affair, Abundant seedlings from drift seeds may be seen during almost any walk along the beaches of an atoll, These are, of course, mainly the same series of pioneer. species, over and over again. The following species were
-h- seen as drift seedlings in the northern pee
Abundant1y establishing themselves in arifts
Meeceracemcie argentea Scaevola frutescens Lepturus repens Guettarda speciosa
‘Rather frequently seen:
Pandanus ee ae Portulaca lutea (in drift atten but not positively of drift one) . Triumfetta procumbens Vigna marina
Rarely seen in drift:
Cocos nucifera Barringtonia esiatica Ipomoea pes—caprae ‘Suriana maritima - Hernandia sonora — - Terminalia samoensis Calophyllum eloped Jno - 4, Wedelia biflora
Intsia bijuga Ipomoea tuba Morinda citrifolia Hi
- Seen as seedlings, once each, but never seen to persist:
Caesalpinia majus Caesalpinia crista
A number of kinds of seeds frequently drift ashore but were not seen eae Among these were Entada and several species of Hucuna
Adaeueh not: dipectay observed, colon cation by many other species unquestionably takes place. Many species do not seem to be able to survive on open: beaches and bars, but need either the protection from wind and salt or shade from the sun provided by already established vegetation or the presence of at least a small amount of humus in the. soil. Some deeprooted species doubtless require a certain degree of freshness ‘in the ground water. The species that require the presence or influence of other plants, as well as those that need fresh ground water, are commonly found in the interior of islets, though Lney often may be much nearer the lagoon than the seaward © beaches. aan
How their seeds are carried to such situations is not always apparent. Unquestionably Pisonia is carried around by birds. Its fruits are exceedingly sticky and a noddy (Anous) was seen.on Wotho literally plastered with them. Several species of birds seem to prefer to roost and nest in Pisonia trees. Boerhavia and Peperomia, as well as Adenostemma, also have sticky fruits and may: be transported by birds, Cassytha and Pipturus have small fleshy fruits, which doubtless are eaten by birds and the stones transported.in birds? stomachs. Which birds would do this is not demonstrated. Scaevola is, without question, carried around in this way in addition to floating, as the droppings of curlews were seen to be commonly packed with the stones of this plant. Ximenia might be carried in the same way, though its fleshy fruits
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are e quite large, . She small plums, Another deals of nog a previously suspected, was discovered on Arno by Marshall (1951).
found in the stomach of a fairy tern: (Gygis) the seed of Ipomoea ae caprae, a plant not even growing on Arno, but common on Majuro, a few
miles away. Why the bird had eaten this:is not apparent, as terns are fish-eaters,. Perhaps the seed was picked up to serve as a gizzard~stone,. Wind doubtless accounts for some small-seeded species, but there are few indigenous atoll plants that seem especially adapted for this method of. transport, except the ferns, mosses, and other cryptogams, Plants with floating fruits or seeds, such as Ochrosia, Thuarea, Cordia, and the ones mentioned above as pioneer species, since they may be found growing back
of or far from the beach, must sometimes be carried inland by storm waves, as is the occasional pumice found scattered on the grouni surface far in- side the beach. Man must not be disregarded as an. agent of disiribution, even of apparently indigenous plants, as weil as of his cultivated ones and camp-followers. Sida fallax is planted about houses in the Marshalls and Carolines, as well as growing wild, Evidence seems to be accumzlating that the mangroves, at least Priguiera, found in landlocked pools asd muddy depressions have been deliberately introduced and planted by the Marsnallese, And in addition to planting the various obviously useful and ornamental plants, the Gilbertese, at least, (Luomala m.s,) pick up and plant any seeds that happen to be cast. up on the beach. A further influence is exerted by man in the creation of habitats for species which otherwise might seldom find a place to get a foothold... Such are especially the taro-pits, dug down to ground water and filled with vegetable muck, . Several weeds, such as Eleocharis, Cyperus, Jussiaea, and a number of ferns are found only or | usually in such situations. The coconut plantation is also a rather special habitat and may, at least, give some plants enormously more opportunities
or "lebensraum" than they “normally would have, Willis and Gardner (1901) give a,much more comprehensive discussion of these matters for the Indian Ocean. atolls. :
Little is known about the reasons for the small numbers of species .. in atoll floras. These range from three (Christophersen 1931, Fosberg 1937) to perhaps 150 in Pacific atolls and as many as 284 (Willis and Gardner 1901) in those close to continents as the Maldives in the Indian Ocean, Distance from sources of colonists and the effectiveness of the ocean as a barrier are obviously of primary importance, Shortness of the history of land availability on atolls may well be another consideration, The scarcity of endemic species results from this. Lack of topographic or altitudinal diversity is another obvious factor, However, the difficulty in getting many of the commonly tried cultivated species to grow.in these islands and the. large number that simply will not grow there, at all, point to the importance of edaphic considerations, though these have not been much analyzed as yet.
Salinity and the highly calcareous nature of the soils are two unquestionably —
controlling factors; Such observations as the distribution of species in relation to ground and aerial salinity, the death of breadfruit trees where > washed by typhoon waves or where the ground water becomes saline (Cloud 1952), and the native practice of leaving a protective strip of forest on the wind-— ward sides of coconut plantations are at least indicative in this direction, though systematic studies remain to. be done, Certainly one of the most striking systematic variations. observed is the increase in number of species from atolls with a dry climate to those with a wet climate. Pokak and Bikar,
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in the dry extreme north of the Marshalls, have 9 species of vascular
plants each, while from Arno, in the wet south of the same group are recorded 129 species (Anderson 1951, Stone 1951). This discrepancy is not due to inadequate collecting, as Pokal and Bikar have been very thoroughly examined. Any further collecting may result in increasing the difference, as more plants may possibly be found on Arno while this is not likely on the others. |. There are doubtless other limiting or controlling factors and combinations
of factors influencing the sizes and compositions of atoll floras, but to discover and understand them will require further study and further correlation of available information.
Succession or Vegetational Change ©
No coral atoll has had sufficient study for even the principal’ | vegetational successions to be well known. No single succession, from bare ground to a relatively stable vegetation, can be described in anything like a complete fashion. Only locally are relatively stable (climax) vegetation types known with certainty, But it is possible to outline, however roughly, some probable successional trends, and to point out with some con- fidence certain successional relationships that are more than accidental. In this paper any change in vegetation that seems to proceed in a definite direction is regarded as a succession. This is in contrast with fluctuations around a point of equilibrium, And if the. latter, over a period of time, result in a directional change in the equilibrium, that also is regarded ~ as a succession. Such changes" as are known or suspected are described below under several categories,
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ake Usual development: of vesetation:
As noted above, under Colonization, pane sand and gravel bars are soon covered by seedlings of a small number of pioneer species. These are able to stand full and very bright sun and high salinity, also considerable dryness, Of these, a large proportion are tree species, and, in an ordinary mixed stand of pioneer species, many will be trees. In most sites scrub is the first vegetation to appear, ahd if tree seedlings. form an important component, these soon overtop the others, developing a low forest. Growth, even under quite dry conditions, is extremely rapid, On Wake Island, with an annual rainfall of 650-1370 mm., Messerschmidia has been observed ote grow almost two meters in a year. The:simplest forests thus formed are pure stands of Messerschmidia, mixtures of Messerschmidia and Guettarda alone, or with Pandanus tectorius and a varying smaller proportion of a number of other trees, Terminalia samoensis, Intsia bijuga, Barringtonia asiatica, and possibly Cordia subcordata are pioneer species and may make up a part of the original composition of such a stand. There is no doubt, however, that they, as well as Guettarda and Pandanus are also capable of increasing in number in mixed stands. Pisonia grandis, Allophylus timorensis, Pipturus argenteus, Soulamea amara, Ochrosia oppositifolia, and other species are, so far as known, added only after the original stand has become established and usually after it has assumed the character of forest. The resulting mixed forest is the commonest type of native forest existing in the Marshalls today. The. same type apparently develops following clearing by man. In the northern Marshalls there is no particular pattern in the arrangement ee
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species in this type of forest, but Hatheway (1953) reports that in the southern Marshalls the trees common occur in small clumps or groves of a single species.
The: shrub and herb species present in the criginal stand persist for a long time in these forests as undergrowth and ground cover, Eventually, however, they may be almost entirely eliminated. lLepturus, curiously enough one oi the first and most abundant pioneers to appear, often persists, longest, forming a thin grass ground cover in all but the most dense mixed forests. With it is usually Thuarea, which was not seen as‘a true pioneer on new habitats in the northern Marshalls, Fimbristylis, also one of the pioneers,
often persists a long time, especially if the canopy is not too dense, Wedelia
and Ipomoea tuba may persist a long time, the latter probably becoming more
- abundant as time goes on, It is an important part of the canopy in many mixed .forests. In rocky places Fleurya ruderalis persists a long time if the canopy is at all thin,
\anether this mixed forest ever reaches stability is not known, Its widespread occurrence suggests that it may, as does the structure of the most mature and well-developed stands, with large trunks, dense’ canopy thin or absent undergrowth, and seedlings of some of the cominant species, It seems certain that Messerschmidia, one of the most abundant early constituents, drops out after one generation. Healthy seedlings of it are never seen in full shade, and when it is present in a very well developed mixed forest the trees are all old and very large. Messerschmidia logs are often seen lying in this type of forest where there are no living trees. Observation of . Pisonia, with its habit of sending up root sprouts and of usually taking root wherever it touches the ground when blown down, suggests that it may gradually take over mixed forest if left long enough, Common occurrence of pure stands of Pisonia may be due to this process, These may, however, result also from colonization of Pisonia in Lepturus grassland, as seen on Pokak Atoll. This might more commonly be the case on drier islands, where stands of Lepturus, or Lepturus and Sida fallax often persist for a long time,
There seems little question that, at least under conditions of moderate rainfall, such as in the central Marshalls, Ochrosia oppositifolia may eventually dominate mixed forest once it gets started, and often will take over completely, forming extensive pure stands, The best areas seen of this type are on Wotho Atoll, but it is a common occurrence on Lae, Ujae, Kwajalein, and Erikub, at least. There is good evidence that it will eventually crowd out even Pisonia, Pure stands of Ochrosia are relatively permanent and stable as shown by the normal occurrence of a dense ground cover of seedlings several dm. tall, which shoot right up if even a little light is available, One puzzling circumstance about these stands of Ochrosia is the presence of persistent yellow spots, seen in the same locations on photos taken in 1944 and on the ground in 1951, The trees are chlorotic and in some cases there are a few dead ones, and in these places Allophylus and even other trees seem able to come in. There is no obvious difference in soil or. other environmental factors in these spots.
Frequency of pure stands of various species is a peculiarity of. atoll vegetation, at least in the northern Marshalls; pure stands of Pandanus and Pisonia and perhaps others are also found in central and southeastern Polynesia, How this is related to the general successional picture is not
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apparent, except perhaps in the’ ‘cases of Pisonia and Ochrosia, These and at least some of the other pure stand types 1 may very possibly be end stages of successions under certain conditions. This is certainly not the case, tnough, with such pure stands as those of Lepturus , Portulaca, Scaevola, Messerschmidia,':Pemphis, and other strictly pioneer plants, Pure Pandanus forests, while. rare in “the Marshalls, seem to occur more commonly in the Tuamotus, also on Maria Atoll, pustial Group. Their origin is a matter of great interest and curiosity.e
On bare rock, especially rough conglomeratie or pitted beach rock, emphis aciduia is Sine the first plant to appear, though actual seed—
oe coloniz ing such habitats have seldom been otserved, Hatheway (1953) says that small pockets c? sand on such rock surfaces are the seed beds for this species, Once established on rocky places, thesé trees persist, often or usually in pure stands, even where their roots are bathed in pure sea water at high tide, Such stands were not observed to be succeeded by any- thing else,
2. Effects of catastrophe and instability:
Naturai catastrophes on coral atolls are mainly of two sorts, typhoons (hurricanés) and tsunamis (so-called tidal waves), The former are, of course, much more frequent than the latter, and their frequency varies much more in different parts of the world, Typhoons are almost unknown, for example, in the Gilberts, somewhat more frequent in the Marshalls, and common in the western Carolines, Statistics on typhoon incidence would be very valuable in suverpreting vegetation differences.
Both typhoons and tsunamis are capable of sending salt water completely over atoll islets, There are apparently no actual records of the effects of tsunamis on atolls, but they have poured water onto high island shores to a much greater height than the total altitude of most atolls, Certain plants would undoubtedly be killed by this, but few facts are available, Breadfruit, at least, has been observed to be so killed by salt storm waves (Cloud 1952).
Typhoons, in addition, schnaaiaee uproot trees of all sizes, They . defoliate trees both by actually tearing the leaves off.and by "buming" them off by driven salt spray, and perhaps by drying at the same time. They profoundly alter both the character and topography of the substratum, and change the actual outline of islands. Large areas of land surface on Arno: Atoll were actually removed during the typhoons of 1905 and 1918, vegetation and all, Some of these places have been extremely slow to becoming revegetated. In others Pemphis has taken over effectively. There is no doubt that, in many areas, instability of substratum owing to typhoons is a major ecological factor in the determination of the character of the vegetation. Even where trees are not actually blown down, soil may be removed from around their roots, or rubble or sand may be piled up around the bases, smothering smaller vegetation and possibly eliminating certain larger species, Trees blown down make openings in the canopy in which species may appear that cannot establish themselves in its shade when unbroken, Defoliation of the canopy may allow temporary undergrowth to come in. i
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Effects of typhoons on the vegetation are quite evident to the observer on most. atolls, but a careful assessment of these effects has not been attempted, at Least in recent times. Considerable information is recorded, but most of it by casual and nonbotanical observers, The thing that is most lacking is an actual eye-witness account, by a botanist, of a severe typhoon on an atoll. Accounts by others are usually conflicting and show evidence of very unreliable observation.
Effects on the vegetation maintained by man are sometimes recorded. The coconut trees were removed, along with the rest. of the vegetation, on Arno in the typhoons mentioned above, Hundreds of coconut trees were blown down on Utirik, and many on some of the other atolls in the Marshalls, especially Aur and Maloeiap, by "Typhoon Georgia" in March 1951, Likiep > was completely devastated and apparently rendered temporarily wfit for human habitation by a typhoon sometime after the middle of the nineteenth century. In German colonial literature are many accounts of natives on the Caroline atolls being moved because their islands were rendered temporarily unable to support them by typhocns., One of the important effects was the filling in of taro pits with sand and salt water, Many accounts of hurricanes in the Tuamotus exist, but they give very little information on the effects on the vegetation, Tn places, however, the coconut groves were actually swept away.
3, Effects of climatic fluctuations:
Although there are atolls with the same annual rainfall with and with- out pronounced yearly dry seasons, no comparisons have beén. made of their vegetation. So the effect of simple annual fluctuation is not known. It would probably result, at least, in less epiphytes and a simaller total flora, probably in tess overall luxuriance. Pisonia and possibly some other trees would show brief defoliation during the dry season. A strong dry season in 1951 in the northern Marshalls showed in some places partial defoliation of some other trees, such as Cordia and Terminalia., Whether this was normal or only the result of an extreme fluctuation is not khow. The general aspect of the more northern atolls during this particular séason became aad’ drab, where a few months earlier it was green, : Bt
In many atolls, especially those just south of the equator=—the southern Gilberts, Phoenix, Howland and Baker, Jarvis, &hnd Malden--one of | the most potent factors influencing the vegetation is the extreme fluctuation in rainfall from year to year, Sometimes more than a year may elapse with no rain at all. In other times, more than the annual average may fall in. one month. Under such conditions the general aspect is much drier than the. average annual rainfall would suggest. And the luxuriante may vary so much - from time to time that descriptions written. several years apart scarcely .. sound as though the same island were described. Canten Island, in the Phoenix Group, has been described as having a general growth, ‘principally Sida fallax, up to two m, tall during a wet period, but when visited in 1949, seven or eight years later, it had the aspect of a desert. On islands with large populations of sea-birds the injurious effects of high toncentrations of _ guano seem to be greatly accentuated by these severe dry periods, Trees. may be severely . damaged or even killed. This has been seen on Pokak, an the. Marshalls, Canton, in the Phoenix, and Christmas Islands
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The theory, advanced by Hutchinson (1950) that phosphate deposits on islands that are at present wooded inditate a major shifting of climatic belts in the recent geologic past, so that these islands’ would have formerly been barren, does not seem in any way justified by the facts. . Phosphate is formed on these islands at present ees forest Ss ioaguag and only under such, Orne Ox ih ee
4, Changes caused by Mans
Alterations by Man's activities have affected ‘the vegetation far more profoundly than typhoons, droughts, or any other natural phenomena. These have occurred in the Marshall Islands in three stages, the pre-European Marshallese period, the copra commerce period, and the Second World War. Comparable: periods, or variations of them, have occurred.on many other atolls. On some of the driez ones the copra commerce period has been replaced by a guano-digging period, On many the war had little or no effect, Ona few, such as the Line Islands, the pre-Huropean period was omitted, as the atolls were not sige ed when drecovened by Eurepeee
hebes the greyed of aberiginall man, the process of clearing the forests began. It could never have been very extensive, on most atolls, because of the lack of metal for clearing tools. . It is probable that Pisonia forest may have been the principal type cleared, as the wood of Pisonia is soft enough to be cut by shell or stone implements. it is also possible that there was actually not much clearing, because coconut and breadfruit trees could be grown in the forests without clearing. In the case of the coconuts, at least; it might take longer for them to reach bearing age. Breadfruit, in wet climates, can shade out practically anything else likely to be found on atolls, In any event, there were probably over the centuries, fairly substantial areas dominated by coconut and breadfruit groves, Hatheway ” (1953) has estimated that in pre-European times’ perhaps fifteen percent of the land area was given over to agriculture. A part of this, on most Micronesian atolls except the driest, was used for taro pits. Marshy and swampy places were probably used for this purpose at first, then enlarged and enriched by © addition of vegetable refuse. A few weeds probably came with the aborigines, as well as ornamental, medicinal, and food plants. The principal food plants brought along were coconut, breadfruit, ‘several taro-like plants, possibly Tacca, and possibly Pandanus, though it is probable that at least some varieties: of Pandanus were on most atolls already.
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The ‘didier geolniey gerne probably: mostly never permanently inhabited, — Most of them were not when discovered by Europeans, though some showed signs of former ‘habitations. Populations on the more favorable atolls varied, and the intensity of utilization of the land fluctuated accordingly. Typhoons, warfare, and losses at sea probably prevented overpopulation. If thése failed, migration solved the problem, The more resistent types of forest and the less productive parts of the islands were probably not much disturbed.
With the coming of the Europeans this changed drastically. The demand for copra and the introduction of axes and machetes of steel caused the rapid replacement of the larger part of the native vegetation by coconut plantations, except on the driest atolls. And on these, enormous quantities of guano were dug up and exported, altering the vegetation, though it is
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not easy.to know how much, On the wetter atolls coconut, ‘plantations. SO. completely” dominate the. vegetational picture that, ordinarily, co'¢onut forest is regarded as the natural vegetation of such islands, It is, indeed, hard to dispel the idea that the coconut is indigenous and the dominant tree in the natural vegetation of these South Sea Islands. _ Now it is mostly | the smallest islets, the exposed or very narrow ends of islets, and the ‘seaward —- on the windward islets .which show any native vegetation at ald, OOo Sana: ‘change vastly inereaséd the available habitat for some native plant = aan however; Some of the undergrowth and ground cover plants, such as Euphorbia chamissonis, Clerodendrum inerme, Thuarea involuta, Fimbristylis cymosa, and Wedelia biflora, as well as such second-story
trees as Pipturus argenteus, Morinda citrifolia, and Pandanus tectorius found this new habitat much pe their liking and are now characteristic of such situations. Now, on fairly moist to wet atolls, dense undergrowth
soon develops into thickets that choke the plantation. Keeping the plantations. free from undergrowth is a major item of labor in this form
of agriculture, even greater in places than harvesting the crop. Many
new weeds | and a few new cultivated plants, mostly ornamentals, came during this period.. Papayas and bananas existed in many atolls previous to ex-— tensive coconut plantation, and were brought to others subsequently. Papayas, of course, are American in origin and did not exist in the
Pacific prior to early European voyages. Most of the weeds are .commonest around villages and paths , but some are ubiquitous, baer in oaeat
‘ Long-continued harvest and export ok large eae ote ‘oF copra are beginning to show their. effects, One of these seems to be phosphate deficiency, probably the cause of the. ‘gradual’ dying out of sizable areas of coconut plantation in: the ee ae Similar symptoms are found in other regions. vos
Another effect of copra economy im some areas, notably the northern Marshalls, has been the abandonment of taro culture, Throughout the northern Marshalls there are extensive evidences of former taro pits that have not been used for many years, This phenomenon is most marked in what were probably the marginal areas of taro culture but is becoming evident also in the southern Marshalls, where both Colocasia and Cyrtosperma, the two taro-type plants grow very well, The culture and utilization of Tacca, also, has been almost abandoned in many islands, except when, after a typhoon, there is no copra to trade for rice or flour, Tacca, however, is still abundant as a spontaneous plant in the coconut groves in many atolls,
The war profoundly affected many of the atolls, especially in the Marshalls, Gilberts, and the central Pacific, Actual war, with the complete or partial destruction of the existing vegetation, took place on some islets of such atolls as Tarawa, Funafuti, Majuro, Kwajalein, Eniwetok, Wotje, and Wake Island. Here, in many places, were produced completely bare areas. These were soon covered by a blanket of Ipomoea pes-caprae, Vigna marina, Wedelia biflora, Pluchea odorata, Cenchrus echinatus, and other weeds, The’ Ipomoea and Wedelia in many places formed such a heavy mat that little else was able to gain a foothold, and many of the other weeds were smothered out. In other places Messerschmidia, Scaevola, and other pioneer woody plants
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quickly became dominant. Only in relatively dry islands, such as wake,
has anything like the original vegetation come back. There Messerschmidia, Pemphis, and Cordia were the principal original woody plants, and in 1951 these dominated the scene again, in spite of almost complete obliteration in 1941-1945.
Another effect of the war was the construction of huge military establishments, especially air fields, on many atolls, even completely out— side the area of actual military activity. This commonly involved complete destruction of vegetation. The bulldozer scraped the land clean, destroyed what soil had been developed, and smoothed down all topographic side a aa Afterward, when the absolute desolation of such establishments became apparent, attempts were made to reestablish vegetation and to landscape these bases, Many of these have since been abandoned, but some are maintained and have even been extended and developed.
A further effect, though localized, has been the utilization of One atolls of Eniwetok and Bikini for testing atomic weapons, The effects of this were undoubtedly both destructive and otherwise. Although the bombs destroyed some areas of vegetation, these atolls had their native populations removed, and revegetation and succession have been able to proceed in most areas undisturbed. Some studies of these effects have been made, but no results have, as yet, been released, subsequent to the publication of the surveys made prior to the tests,
A great number of additional weeds have been introduced and spread during and since the War, Some of them, such as Pluchea odorata, Pluchea indica, Paspalum conjugatum, and Chloris inflata have been very aggressive, and have covered large areas in a short time. But over a period of a few years it has become evident that Wedelia biflora and Ipomoea pes—caprae will in most situations dominate and probably eventually smother out all of these, if disturbance is not continued. Another interesting point is that evidence points to the probability that Ipomoea pes—caprae is an introduced plant, at least in the Marshall Islands, Previous to the war it was only known from Jaluit, the headquarters of German and Japanese occupations. Now it is abundant in Kwajalein, Majuro, and Fniwetok, all sites of extensive military activity. This point has not yet been investigated for other Pacific BP Taek though much evidence is available,
Probable future effects of man on Ae eee dies are hard to ech accurately, Undoubtedly populations will increase, and any available land will be planted to coconuts, This will not be much, however, as most of it is used at present--if it will raise even poor crops of nuts, Programs for economic development of coral atolls are under way and will unquestionably take the form of attempts to improve and extend agriculture, Attempts will likely be made to introduce new agricultural and horticultural plants, some of which might possibly be successful, New weeds will doubtless come in. - There will unquestionably be further and accelerated vegetational change, most of it destructive to what little native vegetation is left, Itis . important that.sample ‘areas of all existing types be set aside for continued study. It is also very importarit that much more extensive general surveys be carried out to describe what is left before Le is too late.
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_ «1B
Principal Types of Vegetation and their Variations.
‘Short descriptions of the principal vegetation types that have been recognized as occurring repeatedly or over.large areas on Pacific atolls : e follow, The account is based again largely on studies in the Marshall. Islands, but with the little available information from other areas brought in wherever possible, Some types that are conspicuous are treated here as. variants of a widespread Mixed Forest type, as they really seem to be |” extremes of a rather continuously varying association of trees that characterize ordinary atoll habitats, Some of the kinds of vegetation described below have definite habitat relations and also successional . relations with other types, These relationships are pointed out briefly and brought out again in the following section, where the pattern is integrated as far as is possible with present knowledge.
ae Coconut groves and plantations:
These are artificial forests of coconut palms planted, often in geo metrical arrangement, five to six meters or less apart. In moist areas the crowns touch and interlace, forming a rather complete canopy; in drier places, they are well separated, In height an old plantation may reach an average of 25 m. The ground cover is varied, usually Lepturus, Thuarea, and Fimbristylis are fairly general in pure stands or mixtures, with Polypodium scolopendria, Tacca, Cassytha, Boerhavia, Fleurya, and other herbs locally common, extensive patches of Euphorbia chamissonis, Clerodendrum inerme, and Triumfetta procumbens, as well as mats of Wedelia biflora, Ipomoea tuba,
Vigna marina, and Canavalia microcarpa. Pandanus, Morinda, Premna, Pipturus, Guettarda, and other trees may form a scattered understory, or, if clearing out of the undergrowth has not been kept up, these with Wedelia, Ipomoea, and Canavalia may form a dense tangled thicket, in which seedling coconut trees are likely to be quite abundant, making walking almost impossible, Breadfruit trees are often scattered through parts of the plantation near villages.
pee Breadfruit groves:
Although breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) trees are commonly seen around villages and scattered in coconut plantations, in the wetter atolls especially in the Carolines and southern Marshalls are areas completely dominated by them. These groves are commonly made up of enormous trees, towering even above the coconut palms and with dense crowns that form a complete canopy through which very little light penetrates, On the floor of such a forest few other plants can survive. Seedlings of Morinda citrifolia occasionally maintain themselves where conditions are not too extreme, and in the Carolines an as yet undetermined species of Piper may form a mat on the ground. Several ferns are also occasional in such situations, Varieties of breadfruit both with and without seeds are present in these forests, the latter being undoubtedly originally planted by man. Both may increase by root sprouts, but the seeded varieties spread very readily by seed. Seedlings may be abundant beneath the parent trees if the light is not too scanty, The possibility should be investigated that these may occasionally be pollinated by seedless trees, and that some seedless ones may be offspring in this way of the seeded varieties, The trunks of large breadfruit trees may be two or three meters in diameter and unbranched to a height of 10 or 15 meters. /
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3. Mixed forest:
The most’ generally distributed native forest on coral islands is a variable mixture that, in one place or another, may include practically all tree species found on atolls, It is, in fact, so diversified that its principal common feature is that it is a mixture. It usually includes, among its components, Pandanus, Guettarda, Pisonia, Messerschmidia, Intsia, ‘Cordia, and Ochrosia, frequently, also, Terminalia, Allophylus, Soulamea, Hernandia, Barringtonia, Pipturus, and Ficus. This I. have called Mixed Forest. Hatheway 1953 calls it Scrub Forest, which term is often appropriate, as its stature varies from scrub to tall forest 25 m. high, In density it varies from close enough to forma complete canopy to. sparse and open. If . Sparse, there is ordinarily a tangled scrubby undergrowth, which, with low. branches of the trees, makes it almost impenetrable. The undergrowth con- sists of seedlings of the trees, with Scaevola, Suriana, Achyranthes, Wedelia, Clerodendrum, and Ximenia, the whole tangled and laced with lianas of Ipomoea tuba and Canavalia, On rocky places there may be Pemphis acidula. Coconuts may y be scattered here and there from nuts planted by the natives or igs by accident ,
In the novenees Marshals there. is no particular organization to this mixture, except that when tall and dense, there is little or no undergrowth. In the southern Marshalls, Hatheway reports that the trees usually occur in small groups of one species, rather than mixed as individuals, What seems essentially the same forest may result .from second growth after clearing and from new colonization on new land. There. seems to be no special correlation with any of the several types of substratum, On the seaward sides, if they are to the windward, there is a transition to a dense scrub. In the interior of, well developed Mixed Forest, Messerschmidia tends to drop out ee eee not. veproducing itself in the aden ae
“Most. of the pecdentandte! forest. epee on 1 atolls seem to be extreme “genictels of Mixed. Forest consisting principally or entirely. of one of the component species of. this: forest,: Because. the. intergradation between all of these types and Mixed Forest seems to be complete, and since their actual developmental relations are not fully understood, they are, for the purposes of this review and to emphasize their lack of sharp limits, here regarded ai as variants, ‘The principal ones. are as follows:
a. Pisonia Forest——Pure starter: ihiaonie eran te are a very common and widespread phenomenon on coral islands. throughout the Indo-Pacific region. The distribution and some data on the: occurrence of this species has been reviewed, recently, both by St. John (1951) and by Shaw (1952). Shaw suggests that. bird guano may be required for the growth of this species, or at least for germination and establishment of its seedlings. However, healthy trees have been observed in absence of any noticeable guano. Germination of seeds must be a rather. infrequent occurrence, as no seedlings of this species were seen in the nee Marshalls investigation.
A ales ceeramese of many or att of these groves or foreses is ae layer of highly acid raw humus on the surface of the ground, and often, just beneath this, a layer of phosphatic sandstone or hardpan, There seems little doubt that this is a phenomenon dependent upon the presence of the Pisonia ~
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(together with sea-birds), rather than controlling the distribution of the Pisonia, This relationship will be discussed in detail GROEWReRSs It has already been . touched upon by Hathewsy. 19536 me ;
This forest,’ up to 25-30 ma. tall, commonly has a acne canopy, elephantine white trunks, spreading at the base into twisted root platforms, and little or no undergrowth except for Pisonia root sprouts. These are of quite irregular distribution, some trees having them, others not, even in the same grove, Fallen trees usually, but not always, take root wherever they touch ground, sending up a number of erect branches that become trunks. In dry regions Pisonia is more or less deciduous in the dry season, allowing more than usual light to enter, Birds tend to favor this forest for roosting and nesting; there are often hundreds or thousands of fairy terns, noddies -of two kinds, red—footed btcobies, and frigate birds nesting in the branches of a grove, and white-tailed tropic birds have been found nesting in cavities.
be. Ochrosia forest: One of the most striking atoll forest types is a pure dense stand of Ochrosia oppositifolia, These trees are up to 20-25 m tall, with clean slender trunks, seldom more than 3 dm. through, and umbrella- ‘shaped crowns of broad dark green leaves, These grow in contact, forming a ‘canopy so dense that there is: perpetual twilight beneath it. There are few seedlings of any other species on the ground, but those of Ochrosia are there in millions. The egg-like bristly fruits form a continuous layer on the ground, andthe seedlings are of mere or less even height, usually 3-4 dm., evidently reaching this height, dying and being replaced or not growing much further. If an opening of any kind is formed in ii canopy, the seedlings beneath - quickly grow up and fill ite :
This forest does not seem to be found especially on any one type of ‘substratum, being seen on sand, gravel, or broken coral rock. It has been observed particularly, as a coneaaene stand, in islands with a moderate rain- fall. Apparently, once started, Ochrosia is able to replace most, if not all other-species, at least in the moderate rainfall belt in the northern Marshalls, It has not been described from anywhere outside the Marshall Islands, though the tree is widely distributed in the Pacific,
ce Pandanus forest: In the Marshalls pure stands of Pandanus tectorius are uncommon and not of large extent. A solid stand was seen on Maria Atoll, Austral Islands, that covered an entire islet. Such stands have also been reported. from the uninhabited atolls of the Tuamotus., Though Pandanus commonly branches toward the base, in dense forests the trunks are usually rather tall and: straight before branching, with conspicuous prop roots, holding up the bases and making walking difficult where the trees are close together, The crowns are pyramidal in shape, composed of enormously long sword-like leaves imbricated on the stem in three close spirals which . give the tree one of its common names, "screw-pine."' These leaves are provided with a row of stiff spines on the midrib and others along the margins. The leaves form a loose accumulation on the ground beneath the trees, where they retard the appearance of seedlings or herbaceous plants. Pandanus seedlings are able to start in'denser shade than in Pandanus forest, but are not common in this type of forest, though they often form a carpet . under isolated trees where leaves have not accumulated, Pandanus seems equally at home in almost any atoll habitat,
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d. Messerschmidia forests: On some of the drier atolls, such as Pokak and Wake, low forest ‘of Messerschmidia argentea is the dominant | vegetation. The trees are not very very close together and commonly preserve — their perfect hemispherical shape. Their silvery gray-green leaves are — fleshy and in extreme dry weather all but the youngest on the twigs drop off, Pure stands of this species often colonize new islets: and may remain uninvaded by other species for a long time, On some islands a strip of © this type, but of very much taller trees, closer together, and open beneath,’ may occur just back of the beach scrub, The trees sometimes, but: rarely, reach | 20.m, tall, Their trunks are twisted and freely branched. They are seldom dense enough to exclude a ground cover, which may be of grass (Le turus , Thuarea, Stenotaphrum), Triumfetta procumbens, or Boerhavia, or, on rocky substrata, Fleuryas Unde -Umish is not so common in this type, though Scaevola frutescen scens may be present, or Sida fallax, Ipomoea & tuba lianas are frequently tangled abundantly in this forest, even in its driest mani- * festations, This type, aiso, seems to have. Little or no preference in sub- — stratum, but it is a pioneer type and will only persist aa ee which do not favor its more mesophytic competitors.» eh di ise
Hep. Cénaia forests In drier atolls Cordia ipuboeearies often forms pure forests, though not of large extent. The trees may be close set and reasonably tall, but are commonly farther apart, at least the trunks, and with low, long widespreading branches that drag on the ground, become tangled and entwined, and make an impenetrable thicket, Often there is no undergrowth or ground cover at all. In the dry season this species may be briefly deciduous,
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f, Barringtonia forest: Only one area of this has been observed, on Lae Islet, Lae Atoll, but it is such a striking type that it is worth looking fnr elsewhere, The trees were of enormous diameter’, massive, 20-25 m. tall, canopy complete and dense, nothing on the ground extept a colony of Peperomia, ‘The ground in this forest had been covered; subsequent to the trees reaching a large size, by a deposit of large boulders to a depth of up to a meter, This should be looked for elsewhere, as the EEE is found everywhere in the tropical Pacific ane Indonesia,
4. Pemphis forest:
On rock at or above high tide level, whether elevated reef rock, coral conglomerate, or beachrock, pure stands of Pemphis acidula, a densely branched small—leafed tree, are common, The trees are able to grow where pure sea water wets their roots at high tide. They reach 6-8 m. tall, are commonly © gnarled and twisted, with trunks up to 2-3 dm, thick, pare much more, of extremely hard and heavy wood. The lower branches, even though dead, are persistent and rigid, and as the trees grow very closely, the stand may be fairly impenetrable. Usually nothing grows beneath it, The general color of this forest, from a distance, is a soft bluish green, and the texture of the trees leads persons unfamiliar with Pemphis to describe it as looking like a conifer, This type is a fairly reliable indicator of rock substratum, but occasionally may be found on sand. Possibly these cases have rock at shallow depths, but this has not been investigated thoroughly.
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5. Mangrove Forest:
Mangroves of a number of kinds may be found in shallow lagoon margins, in tidal ponds or swamps with outlets, and in depressions with no outlets. ' In open lagonns Sonneratia or Rhizophora are found, rarely Bruguiera conjugata, The. latter is imuch more common in the depressions, either mud bottomed or rock bottomed, where it may be accompanied by Lumitzera, Intsia, or Pemphis. ~The latter two are usually found on rock bottoms, In the ponds with. outlets Rhizophora is commonest, In the Marshalls, where the depressions without outiets are commonest, there is some evidence that Bruguiera may have been placed there deliberately by man, This is certainly true in some cases eosin 1904) « The fruits are used in making a dyee :
ah Reach Scrub:
Generally along the seaward sides of islets, ee the wind- ward sides, on the ends, and to a lesser extent along the lagoon beaches, beach scrub may be found on scrub vegetation, This is usually preponderantly Scaevola frutescens, but with varying admixtures cf small bushy specimens of Messerschmiaia, Guet tarde, Terminalia, ‘Suriana, Pemphis, and, on lagoon beaches, sometimes Cx Cordia, Sophora, tomer oga, and Al} Allophylus, In different situations this has.a vastly di Sepa appearance, On both beaches it ccmmonly forms a fringe, principally Scaevola, along the edge of the forest at the top of the beach, merging with the forest on the landward side. If this is a lagoon beach or seaward beach on the leeward side its margin is abrupt, vertical or rounded, and it may be several meters-tall, On the windward outer beaches, especially in the trade-wind beits, the top surface of the scrub slopes down in an inclined plane, continuous with the similarly "wind-sheared" top of the forest, to the top of the beach. Occasionally the edge of this has a scalloped appearance and the upper surface is grooved in the direction of the prevailing wind, the groves gradually disappearing landward, Depending on the physiography of the ends of the islands, the scrub found there may be merely a continuation of the fringe on the seaward side if it is a boulder beach, or, if it is a sand or gravel spit, a scattered to dense growth, principally Scaevola may be quite extensive, resulting from original colonization, On the lagoon side of such a spit, or lagoonward of the forest, a row of Scaevola or mixed scrub may catch windblown sand and form a low dune ridge,
7- Miscellaneous scrub types:
In the interiors of islands, especially of drier ones, different sorts of scrub vegetation may occasionally be found, On Pokak Atoll are areas of Scaevola 1-2 m. tall, often on exposed rock substratum. Such areas, on most atolls, would probably be occupied by Pemphis scrub or forest, but this plant does not occur on Pokak. A similar inland scrub has been reported by Christophersen (1927) from Christmas Island.
A thin scrub of Sida fallax, usually with Lepturus and other herbs, occurs in fairly large areas on Pokak and on Christmas Island, Canton, and other dry central Pacific atolls. This seems to fluctuate a great deal with wet and dry periods, the individual bushes partially dying during dry cycles, but with some branches continuing to flower. In some favorable localities this may reach almost 2 m. in height and be so dense as to somewhat impede walking. Small patches of this are found on dry islets in other atolls of
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the northern Marshalls, often surrounded by forest. Tn piacews as on Christmas Island, Messerschmidia trees, perfectly rounded on top, are more or less thickly scattered in the Sida scrub to form a park-land or ‘Savanna,
Hedyotis romanzcffiensis and Ben enaeta ane anomalum form a dwarf scrub, usually rather : sparse, on Christmas Island. In places Sida and Suriana may be added to this to form a mixed dwarf scrub. Herbs, such as Lepturus Seu: Portulaca, and Boerhavia are commonly associated with this, It is usually not more than about 0.5 m. tall, Something similar occurs in openings in Bee the Tuamotus, but little is known about it,
On Christmas Island, and perhaps, Jarvis, are small areas of loose scrub made up of Abutilon indicum. The bushes grow to 1-2 m. tall.
8. Lepturus Grassland:
On most of the drier atolls are patches, and on Pokak and Christmas large areas, of a bunchgrass vegetation of Lepturus repens, sometimes with admixtures of Heliotropium anomalum, Portulaca, Boerhavia, and other herbs. ‘These seem, invariably, to have sand or fine gravel as a substratum, either pure or between the rocks. . The bunches may be so close together as to form a continuous cover or may be widely separated, and may be very small to as much as 3-4, dm. tall, On Pokak this type of area is invariably undermined by the burrows of enormous numbers of wedge-tailed shearwaters, On Christmas ~~ Island there may be a scattering of Messerschmidia trees, giving a savanna effect. This is also somewhat true on Pokak. On some atolls, these Lepturus patches are often extensively parasitized by mats of Cassytha filiformis.
On Christmas Island Lepturus is tecatly mixed with Tribulus cistoides or with Heliotropium anomalum,
9, Other Natural Herb Types:
On some atolls, as Taka, Bikar, Jarvis, and other rather dry ones, are areas where Portulaca lutea is dominant or in pure stands, The cover is ordinarily not complete. These are usually on rather freshly formed sand or gravel surfaces, and are probably short-lived, being invaded by other species rather promptly.
Mixtures of Portulaca, Boerhavia, and Lepturus may cover she ground sparsely to rather densely. On Christmas Island Christophersen (1927) described, also, areas of a pure stand of Boerhavia, which he said had grown over and killed the other plants.
On highly saline Pata, usucdde near the lagoon, at practically high tide level, the vegetation is of scattered mats of Sesuvium portulacastrum, This vegetation has been noted on Wake Island, Canton Island, and Christmas Island, and probably occurs more sine a least in the dry Pacific Pqustaniat and Phoenix groups.
10, Secondary Herbaceous Types:
During the war large areas on such atolls as Kwajalein, Eniwetok, Wotje, Jaluit, and others were denuded of their vegetation. Most of these
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have searcely been studied, but on Kwajalein and to a much lesser extent, Jaluit and Eniwetok, observations have been made, These areas seem, usually, to be occupied by mats of Ipomoea pes-caprae, Wedelia biflora, or Vigna marina, These may become so dense that invasion on by y woody species is greatly retarded. Wedelia tends to dominate in many such occurrences, and may form a dense mat one or even two m, thick, sometimes mixed with Ipomoea, On Lae Islet, Lae Atoll, a similar mat of pure Wedelia occupies an open meadow-like place of unknown origin in the forest. This did not change significantly between 1944:and 1952. The substratum was fine broken coral,
On abandoned compacted coral air strips, Fimbristylis cymosa (or atollensis) may get started as a pure stand and persist for some time, as on ‘Bikej Islet, Kwajalein.
In 1945 an attempt was made to revegetate Kwajalein Islet and some others that were being used as active military establishments, by planting Cynodon dactylon. This has persisted in some places, but soon became invaded by other species, especially by Paspalum vaginatum, a similar sod—forming grass, The latter is now the commonest grass on Kwajalein Islet. Heavy. traffic tends to discourage such plants as Wedelia and to favor such temporary _ weeds as the obnoxious Cenchrus echinatus, Eragrostis amabilis, Eleusine indica, and several species of Euphorbia. The weedy vegetation around such establishments is complicated by the great influx of new weeds brought in accidentally, Pluchea odorata and P. indica have become very abundant around most military bases, and for a: while there seemed a probability that they would dominate the vegetation, However, where left reasonably undisturbed, Wedelia: seems very able to smother them out,
-ll. ‘Bogs and Marshes:
For present purposes bogs and marshes may be distinguished by defining ' the former as masa a substratum of a spongy peat, the latter a substratum of 'BOEL: sigh
‘Pits, anti Peta lly eabablidtied for ideation of taro-like plants, usually Cyrtosperma and Colocasia, occasionally sugar cane. and other things,
even-ornamentals such as Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, are the commonest kind of
marshes found on atolls, These are essentially pits dug down to below the
water table in the centers of islets, then filled in up to the surface of
the ‘fresh:or brackish water with vegetable refuse or compost, which rots and
- forms ‘the muck substratum. Such pits vary from a few square meters to. many
hectares in extent. Cyrtosperma, a gigantic herb with great. arrow—shaped
leaves up to three meters or more tall, usually dominates these pits, This
ténds to crowd ‘out Colocasia, which is often preferred as food, The starchy ‘corms of these plants are the parts utilized, the tops of thése being broken off and replanted. Many weeds occur in such places, the most aggressive being
Alocasia, a giant aroid similar in appearance to Cyrtosperma but inedible,
and Paspalum vaginatum, The latter, introduced recently in the northern
Marshalls, has completely taken possession of many of these pits on Likiep’
and Ailuk, Other common weeds are Cyperus odoratus, Eleocharis geniculata,
Jussiaea suffruticosa, Polygonum sp., and Athyrium sp.
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Natural marshes occur on many atolls, being places where, for one or another reason, the ground surface dips beneath the water table, The _ bottom is a soft mud whose composition has not been investigated. Cyperus _ Javanicus, Jussiaea, and various weeds are commonly found here, fe
On Washington Island, at one end of the freshwater lake, is a peat bog of some extent, The vegetation of this is a solid stand of Scirpus. riparius, invaded around the edges by Cyrtosperma and Polypodium scolopendria. This is a rather rare or possibly unique occurrence on an atoll and has been well described by Wentworth (1931) and Christophersen (1927).
12, Terrestrial algal vegetation:
The land algae have been little investigated on atolls, There are, of course, the usual epiphytic unisellular green and blue-green algae on tree trunks and in lichen association with fungi, and microscopic ‘algae on moist ground. There are algal mats in pools, both blue-green and green.
On the wet bottom of a depression on Wake Island was noted a luxuriant fur-like growth of Fnteromorpha, Almost nothing is known of the composition of most of the algal vegetation, Two physiognomic types are apparently so widespread as to be almost universal in their respective habitats, These have attracted some attention from Cones than vegetation students, They are as follows:
a. Surface discoloration on limestone rocks: Rocks exposed above high—tide level, whether consolidated material or loose boulders and cobbles, though white, pinkish, or very pale brown in color within, are ordinarily colored from a blue-gray to black, On close examination this is found to result from a layer as much as several mm. thick in which the rock is green in freshly broken cross section, Often the inner margin of this layer is more strongly colored than the intermediate depths, while the outer surface seems black, When the limestone is dissolved away in acid this color is* found to be due to unicellular blue-green algae belonging to the Chroococcales, There ‘, have been various observations on its effect on the hardness and decomposition .of the surface layers of the limestone, but no one, as yet, has separated out the effects. which are due to the-algae from those with other causes. Also, nothing is definitely known as to the origin and differences in intensity of color, It has been suggested by Teichert (1947) that the color is in proportion to the age of exposure, and that this might be a means of dating, relatively, ‘the shingle deposits. Not enough is understood about this, as yet, to make any such conclusions dependable. It has been noticed, on Pokak Atoll, that _ hens: there is much abrasion by rolling puound ous jiggae material the alia
layer is kept worn thin or is absent. :
b. Algal crust_on coral sand: On most areas where there is open sand, either with no other vegetation or between bushes. of sparse scrub or tufts of sparse bunch grass, the surface of.the sand for the first few milli- meters is caked into a crust, held together by gelatinous blue-green algae. ‘The general color is: ‘gray to “blackish, but. appears greenish when moist. When very dry such a crust, if well developed, may crack and curl up or wrinkle. The algae ieee this crust are, so far as known, principally, Hassallia byssoidea, Scytomema ocellatum, and Porphyrosiphon fuscus, all filamentous Myxophycae, and Gloeocapsa alpicola, a gelatinous colonia form (Taylor 1950).
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This crust has attracted some attention as a possible source of fixed nitrogen in atoll soils, since it has been demonstrated that certain ‘blue-green algae ‘Aré able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. A limited amount of work has been done toward finding out if this is actually the case, but not .enough has* been done to yield any definite results, The crust undoubt edly serves an important! function. in retarding wind drift of find sand.
13. Marine Seed~plant Vegetation:
wat On sandy, quiet-water shores in the western Pacific, Indian eee and Caribbean Sea several genera of marine spermatophytes, commonly called "sea-grasses" tend to form a sod—like vegetation, holding the surface layers -of sand in place by their entangled rhizomes. This type of vegetation is “probably not unusual in the lagoons of atolls, but has scarcely been reported from them, Two occurrences are known. One is a tiny patch of Thalassea
» hem prichii at the outlet of a mangrove swamp on Ailinglapalap Atoll; the
other is a long strip of sod of the same species at low tide level on the lagoon beach of Ujelang Islet, Ujelang Atoll, both in the Marshalls. Un- doubtedly this will be found to be more widespread, especially in the Caroline atolls when they are more adequately investigated. It is a common feature of barrier reef lagoons around high islands in Micronesia,
This vegetation is often referred to as "turtle-grass" and is said to be the principal food of the green turtle, It is rather.difficult to account for the abundance of turtles in the northern Marshalls when there is so little "turtle-grass" without assuming either other foods or extensive migrations. Such migrations are known in the western Indian Ocean, where the turtles breed on some of the atolls, but migrate to the Mozambique ‘Channel, hundreds of kilometers away, to feed during a part of the year. ‘Their stored fat apparently keeps them alive during the breeding season, It would be very interesting to know if there are such migrations of turtles in the Pacific,
14. Marine Algal Vegetation:
The actual algal communities of atolls have not been sufficiently studied to enable a very significant summary to be made. A zonation is observed, even by the casual collector, which will be outlined below, beginning with the outer edge of the reef, The problem is complicated by the fact that the zonation is by no means the same on windward and leeward sides, by
. seasonal fluctuations in abundance of species, and by fluctuations in response to available nutrient material dissolved in the water. An excellent example ef this is given by Taylor (1950), when he notes that Enteromorpha was scarcely seen when he arrived on Bikini.in 1946 but had become very abundant during the time the party spent there, presumably in response to the pollution of the lagoon by sewage and refuse from the large establishment set up there for the atomic-bomb tests, There is also much difference in algal floras, at least as to relative abundance of SPEEAGS; arom atoll to atoll,
a. Algal ridge (Lithothamnion ridge ik most authors) : At the outer
edge of the seaward reef, especially on the windward side, calcareous red algae of the genus Porolithon and possibly other genera form a massive accumulation
a a | oy 6
OL
of limestone that is generally built up several feet above the general level of the reef flat. It is of a bright pink color, rough to rather smooth, and is very resistent to the pounding of the waves. Many people believe that the strength of this indurated edge of the reef protects the whole structure froin pulverization by the breakers, The height to which this ridge is developed is more or less in proportion to the constancy and roughness with which waves break against it, Frequently it is entirely absent on the leeward ~ sides of atolis, On the leeward sides, also, there may occasionally be a small such ridge developed on the edge of the lagoon reef, in response to lagoon waves,
be The moat: The depressed area or trough dipping below low tide level just behind the algal ridge, landward, sometimes represented by numerous tidepools, is usually filled with corals and has a considerable diversity of algae. There may be Lavren¢ia in abundance, Liagora, Avrainvillea, Codiun, Halimeda, and many other | genera, They do not, however, form a conbinuous layer, except sometimes in the case of Codium,
Ce The reef fi. flats: This relatively smooth, gently sloping area, ' sometimes very ry broad, “extending from high-tide level to low-tide level, is mostly coverea by a Eon eannoue layer of algae, sometimés very thin, and little else, Over large areas Cladophoropsis is dominant, forming a dense felt which catches fine calcareous send, Over other areas ale is replaced ‘by a fur of Jania, also a collector of sand, Padina is common in other places, though’ not very frequent in the northern Marshalls, In more restricted areas, néar high-tide level, may be putty~like masses of silt held together by the very fine filamentous Schizothrix, In still other places there is only a slimy film of microscopic algae of several sorts, On the under sides of boulders strewn on this flat Microdictyon is common ; and there is some Dictyosphaeria. In certain places the bottom is covered by a crust of a thin encrusting cal-— careous red algae, or by small pebbles so encrusted (nodular), There may be a rough correlation in the distribution of these communities with the duration of exposure above water, but it has not been worked out eno well, as yet.
d.. The lagoon reef flat: The apoon reef flat, he shallow shelf extending out a short distance from the inner shore of “the islets, is not generally a region of abundant algae, It is usually either sandy or covered by rubble, In the northern Marshalls, Halimeda stuposa and a species of - Udotea of similar habit grow in sandy places as scattered tufts, with their curious "pseudostipes" buried in the sand, Between the boulders of rubble deposits a little Caulerpa may be found, Tiny tufts of small filamentous : red algae also grow here, sometimes on the sea anemones that are common here.
Co, The passage between islets: Here! water is usually flowing in one direction or another, Luxuriant colon: colonies of 'Halimeda, several species of Caulerpa, and, rarely, Turbinaria ornata grows at or below low tide level, The rocks, both above and below. w Low=tide level are ae with “a ogo of very small algae.
eo 3 ‘The leeward reef where e_there ¢ are no islands: Where this is ek exposed at Tow “tide, “except £ for coral heads and 1} boulders, coral is very . abundant and algae are scarce, On Ailuk only a species of Liagora saeed to be common in such a place, forming scattered tufts growing on the coral and , boulders, Where the leeward reef is exactly at low-—tide level or slightly
w/e
~23=
above it, it is often covered by a platform of Porolithon, bordered by. Ba a slight Lithothamion ridge. In cavities in this are Halimeda and Caulerpas
g. The lagoon bottom: This has not been studied much, but in the northern Marshalls it is mown to be covered at least in some areas, by a ~.. stand of Halimeda growing in such abundance that the lagoon bottom sediments are in places almost entirely made up of its calcareous skeletons. In Ailuk a species of Caulerpa was snagged from the lagoon bottom by a ee SO. there may be some areas where it is abundant.
Vegetational Patterns
The original arrangement of the various types of vegetation on atolls has been very largely obscured because coconuts have been planted indiscrimi- nately almost everywhere, The present pattern is for the greater part of the larger islets to be covered by coconut plantations, leaving a belt of scrub and scrub forest on the windward sides of islets on the windward sides of aa atolls. -This protects the coconut trees from excess wind and salt spray. The ... outer edge of this belt is usually a fringe of Scaevola, which gradually merges with the mixed forest which lines the coconut groves. Very narrow islets and parts of islets, such as sand spits on their ends, seldom have coconuts, but usually have mixed scrub, usually dominantly Scaevola and Messerschmidia, or if the narrow place is rock, the vegetation may be Pemphis. scrub. Along the lagoon sides of the coconut groves, there is usually a thin line of scrub or a row of trees.
*%: From the remnants of native forest remaining here and there, and from a consideration of the present distribution of trees on the islets mostly occupied by coconut groves (Hatheway 1953), some idea may be obtained of the original patterns, It is apparent that some species of plants--and con- sequently, where there are so many types dominated by single species-—some vegetation types are less halophytic than others, Such are Ochrosia, Pisonia, and mixtures of these with Intsia, Allophylus, Pandanus, Pipturus, Guettarda, and others, but lacking Messerschmidia, These types tend to be toward the interior of islets, and surrounded by more halophytic and scrubby forest’ and beach scrub, dominated by Messerschmidia, Scaevola, Pandanus, Terminalia, and Guettarda, The width of this more halophytic belt, especially of the outer beach scrub, is greater on the seaward and especially the windward sides. In the wetter atolls, after they are largely in coconuts, breadfruit groves and solid breadfruit forest seem to coincide in distribution with those parts of the islets where the more mesophytic forests formerly occurred. It has been suggested (Fosberg 1948, 1949) that the distribution of the more mesophytic types might be correl ated with a lens of relatively fresh ground water, better developed on the wider islets, The existence of such a lens and its correlation with the distribution of some plants, such as breadfruit, has been amply demonstrated since, though there seems reason to think that the influence of salt spray and wind is much greater than previously suspected, And too little is yet known about the seasonal fluctuation in salinity in these shallow ground water lenses,
On very dry islands the occurrence of Lepturus grassland seems to coincide somewhat with sandy areas, completely rocky places being more likely to be occupied by scrubby forest of Messerschmidia, or, in places, Cordia
or Pisonia. af é
oD lin
emphi.s forest: on ‘scrub: is ‘practically. always found on rock surfaces at or. cae high-tide. level. Suriana, which sometimes forms a rather pure scrub, but more often is a component of mixed beach scrub, has only once or twice "been ‘seen or recorded from anything but Sand. Sophora a is race ound on Se lagoon beach ridges.
Entirely too few ato eee been at all cok cen Cee to make more . than. the roughest géneYalizations possible. The only vegetation maps: of atolls that exist are those of Arno (Hatheway 1953). Without such maps, similarities in distribution patterns are hard to see.
Most nosdse Sueur studies
: The most neeane ‘neéd is for information on the few remaining bits of “native vegetation on atolls in various parts of the world, Such studies of the more remote atolls in the northern Marshalls during 1951 and 1952, though very brief, yielded a great deal of information, And remuants of original “vegetation will disappear extremely rapidly, MET:
‘All opportunities should be taken advantage of to look into the salinity relations of the different vegetation types and of individual species of plants, Any ground water study should be accompanied by careful notes on the ~vegetation. Information is especially desired on the effects of seasonal fluctvetions in-salinity,
Anything contributing to an understanding of successional relations
of these vegetation types will‘also be important, Observations as to what species can establish themselves in the shade of what others, as to what common species are seen dying out or lacking in some types, and as to changes taking place over the years in areas completely devastated during the war, are all especial desiderata.
Whether or not the prominence of types consisting of single species is a general atoll phenomenon or only characteristic of the relatively dry northern Marshalls is not known, And in any event, the explanation for this is of. great. interest, Whether it is a function of the extreme habitat, or of the very small floras, or of both should be looked into,
The cause for the areas of unhealthy or dying coconut plantations in the Marshalls, and whether such a phenomenon is found elsewhere, are matters of more than academic importance,
Whether pure Ochrosia forest is found elsewhere than in the northern Marshalls is not known, The nature of the yellow patches in this forest, also, seems of fundamental importance, This is especially so if it can be shown that it is an effect se the vegetation on the habitat.
Any influence exerted by the vegetation on the habitat is of great interest. The only clear-cut case familiar at present is the formation of phosphate rock under the influence of Pisoriia forest. Phosphate exhaustion in coconut groves is suspected, Influence of beach scrub in the piling up of sand dunes is also prooable. Protection of the land surface against mild typhoons is another possibility. Binding of sand by blue-green algae against
o/6
-25—
wind erosion is still another. The effect, if any, of algae, in the formation. of beach or reef sandstone needs to be determined, There are many others,
but most studies have been so hurried that it was not possible to gain more than an inkling that something was happening. The careful study of any ecological process is one of the most important things that can be done to gain the understanding of atoll ecology, The student must, however, be . cautioned against the tendency to explain everything in terms of the one process intensively studied. The vegetation is an expression of the inter= action of many such processes, and the unraveling of their effects is the ultimate, though probably unattainable objective of the study of vegetation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, D,. The plants of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands, Atoll Research Bull. 7: 1-4, i-vii, 1951.
Christophersen, =, Vegetation of Pacific Equatorial Islands. Bishop Mus, Bull. 44: 1-79, 1927.
Vascular plants of Johnston and Wake, Occ. Pap. Bishop Mus. 9(13): 1-20, 1931.
Cloud, P. E., Jr. Preliminary report on geology and marine environments of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands. Atoll Research Bull, 12: 1-73, 1952.
Fosberg, F. R. Vegetation of Vostok Island, Central Pacific. Bishop Mus. Spec, Publ, 30: 19, 1937.
Salinity and atoll vegetation. Proc. Hawaiian Acad. Sci, 23: 8, 1948.
~" Atoll vegetation and salinity. Pace Scie 3: 89-92, 1949.
and St. John, H, Vegetation et flore de ltatoll Maria, les Australes, Revue Scientifique du Bourbonnais 1951: 1-7, 1952,
Hatheway, We H. The land vegetation of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands, Atoll Research Bull. 16: 1-68, 1953.
-26-
Hutchinson, Ge. E, _ Survey. of contemporary knowledge of biogeochemistry. 3. ane DioRSCEnaPhy of vertebrate excretion, ; ; ‘Bull, Am, Mus, Nat. mete Rot 155s, 19506,
Luomala , K, Plants of the Gilbert Islands, (In press).
Marshall, Je Ts, Jr; Vertebrate ecology of no! vel Atoll Research Bull. 3: 1-38, 1951.
St. John, H,. The Gree butien of Pisonia grandis (Npebaeinaceae). Webbia &: 225-228, - 195Le
Us and Fosbera. Bo) We Vegetation of Flint Island, Central pied Hie: Oce, Pap. Bishop Mus, 12(2h): 1-4, 1937.
Schnee, /P. / Land und Leute der Marshallinsein. Zeitschr. Kolon, Politik 6: 245-265, 190k.
Shaw, He Ke Ao Wika glee ge das " On the distribution of Pisonia grandis R. Br. (Nyctaginaceae), with special reference to Malaysia,
Kew Bull, 1952: 97-97, 1952,
stone, BE. l,, dre The soils of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands, and, The agriculture of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bull. 5: ie; 6: ae 1951.
Taylor, We Re Plants of Bikini and other nie sth Marshalls Islands, 1-227, Ann Arbor, 1950.
Teichert, C,. Contra bubions to the geology of doutiants Abrolhos, Western Australia, Proc. Linn, Soc, N.S.W. 71: 145-196, 1947.
Wentworth, C. K. Geology of the Pacific Equatorial Islands, Occ. Pap. Bishop Mus, 9(15): 1-25, 1931.
Willis, J. C. and Gardiner, J. S. The botany of the Maldive Islands, Ann, R. Bot. Gard, Peridenya 1: 45-164, 1901.
Wood-Jones, F. Corals and atolls .... 1-392, London, 1910.
UO, /H RR PLLTS.
Nos. 24, 25, 26 November 15, 1953
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
24, Enumeration of the Decapod and Stomatopod Crustacea from Pacific Coral Islands by L. B. HOLTHUIS
25. Bryophytes from Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands by H. A. MILLER and M. S. Doty
26. Scorpions on Coral Atolls by M. H. SACHET EWTHSON GS
DEC2 1953
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD
National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council
Washington, D. C., U.S. A.
ATOLL RESEARCH BULL&TIN
; i 24, Enumeration of the Decapod and Stomatopod Crustacea from Pacific Coral Islands
by L. B, Holthuis
25. Bryophytes from Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands
by H. A. Miller and M,. S, Doty
26, Scorpions on Coral Atolls
by M, He. Sachet
i
3 , | Issued by | THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD |
Natinnal Academy of Sciences-—-National Research Council |
Washington, D.Ce November 15, 1953
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll Program of the Pacific Science Board.
It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the fundemental information on atclls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S. Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, under the command of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the Pacific Science Board's research programs, CIMA, SIM, anc [CCP, during the past six years. The Coral Atol! Program is a nart of SIM.
The preparation and issuance of this Bulletin is assisted by funds from Contract No. N7-onr-291, Task Order IV.
The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and do not necesserily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or the editors of the Bulletin.
Editorial Staff
F. R. Fosberg, editor M. H. Sachet, assistant editor
Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be addressed to the above
c/o Pacific Science Board National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W. Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A.
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
No, 24 Enumeration of the Decapod and Stomatopod Crustacea from Pacific Coral Islands by L. B, Holthuis
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences—-National Research Council Washington, D.C.
November 15, 1953
— il ag Rigen Great I me
ee ee
A
PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD OF THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
Invertebrate Consultants Committee for the Pacific
Enumeration of the Decapod and Stomatopod Crustacea
from Pacific Coral Islands
tig) Be) HOLGhuLS Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historic Leiden, The Netherlands
June 5, 1953
Enumeration of the Decapod and Stomatopod Crustacea from Pacific Coral Islands by De iBe Holthuis Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie
Leiden, The Netherlands
INTRODUCTION
The present enumeration lists the Decapod and Stomatopod Crustacea collected during the first three years of the Pacific Science Board's Coral Atoll Program. The collections include those made. at Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands, in 19503; at Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands, in 1951; in the Marshall Islands in 1951-1952; and at Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands, in 1952, Also included are the Decapoda and Stomatopoda collected by Dr, Preston E. Cloud, Jr. and his associates in 19h9 at Saipan during ecological investigations of the Saipan reefs under a project sponsored by the U. S. Geological Survey.
The work of the author on this enumeration was made possible by a contract between the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy, and the National Academy of Sciences (NR160 175).
The list of species given here is not annotated and is intended only to furnish the ecologists, who collected the material, with the names of their specimens. Since the number of scientists involved is rather large, it was not feasible to provide each with a typed copy. Therefore, it was decided to present this list in the present mimeographed forme A duly annotated report on the Decapoda Macrura will be published
in the near future.
The present enumeration is not complete insofar as the crabs of the family Trapeziidae are excluded. The material of this group has been turned over to Dr, Fenner A. Chace, Jr., curator of the Division of Marine Invertebrates of the U. 5. National Musew, who is preparing a revision of this family. Through laek of time, only one species each of the fani tics Galatheidae and Porcellanidae have been dealt with here,
Full station data gencrally are given with each record. The location of the 19.9 P. E, Cloud Saipan stations may be seen on map No. le The data associated with R, W, Hiatt's material collected during the 1950 Arno Atoll Expedition are given as a supplement at the end of this paper, at least for the non-Macruran Decapods, Dr, Hiatt's station data for the Macrura are given under each species. Albert H. Banner's 1951 Onotoa localities are to be found on map No.2. Several of these localities are discussed by Dr. Banner in Atoll Research Bulletin
No. 13, Pt. I (1952).
WOVE 5 1953
DECAPODA Lo Brachyura : DROMIA CEA Family Dromiidae
Cryptodromia canaliculata Stimpson
a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. E, Strasburg; Loc. A, I-II: 1 spec.
be Homohomo Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from under rocks, etc., near choses July 2l, 19525 JQ LE Gin Noma oa Loc. 1962: 1 spece
Ce Homohomo Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from under rocks near shore in Secon pool) zones July 2), P9525 J c0be we Morrison; Loc. 1963: 1 spec.
Family Dynomenidae
Dynomene spinosa Rathbun ae Homohomo Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from under rocks near shore in Hamenent pool pores July: 2 LOS ORs g P, 1 Morrisons; Lot. 1963: 1 spec.
OZYSTOMATA Family Calappidae
Calappa hepatica (L.)
ae Ine Village, Arno Atoll, } arshall Islands; sand near shore of lagoon; July 25, 1950; a W, Hellss Loe. 602. /) l spec.
be. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; RoW, Hiatt ioc, a2 ails 3 spec.
ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July ~ August, 1951; A. H. Banner: 1 spec.
de Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July — eee 1951; 4, H. Banner; oce Bier ahaa,
@e Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 26, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. B 1-6: 3 spec.
f. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; clean limesand flat in the vicinity of a point about 3000 ft. E. of Aonteuma, Nii. Onotoa, area exposed at mid—tide; August 21, 1951; F. E. Cloud; Loc. GOC-l2: 1 spec.
ge Leeward reef, Ailuk Atoll, Marshall Islands, just west of Ailuk Island; leeward side; 1951-1952; F. 5, MacNeil; Loc. 8h6:
1 spece
h. West end of Ailuk Island, Ailuk Atoll, Marshall Islands; leeward reef; 1951-19522 .F. S. hacNeils| Loc.) 8532" 2 ‘spec,
i. Lae Island, Lae Atoll, Marshall Islands; windward side, under rocks; 1951-1952. F. S, MacNeil: locy’ 877: LU quv.
j- Island north of Lae Island, Lae Atoll, Marshall Islands; lagoon sides, 1951-1952; F. S, MacNeil; Loc. 879:, 1 spec.
Matuta banksi Leach ae Arno 4toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. EB. 2-1hh: 1 spec.
Family leucosiidae
Nucia speciosa Dana a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May h, 1949; P. E. Cloud; Loe. H-8; from coral rock: 1 spec, b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 199; FP, E. Cloud; Loc. hs; 500 yds. NNE of Managaha Island: 1 spec.
OXYRHYNCBA Family Majidae Subfamily Acanthonychinae Menaothius monoceros (Latreille)
ar
a, Lagoon west of Saipan, ‘arianas Islands; April 8, 199; F. =. Cloud; Loc, B-2; taken from vegetation and sand brought up by diving with face plate: 6 spec.
be. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 9, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. G1: 1 spec.
ce Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Istiands; April 6, 199; F. E. Cloud; loc. D-5: spec.
d. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 199; ?. E. Cloud; Loc. h; 500 yds. NNE of Managaha Island: 3 spec.
e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE end of reef area knovn as Rakai Ati, 5S. side of big windward point of reef near center of atoll. Collected in $ mile strip across the reef; August 20, 1951; Ps HE, Cloud; Loc. GOC-36:. 1 spec.
f. Nearmeca Island, Xaroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer part of
old wharf along lagoon beach at village; August 29, 1952;
dg morrison; Loce 222n5 1 spec.
Trigonothir obtusirostris hiiers a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 19, 19h9; P. E. Cloud; Loc, F-x: 1 spec.
‘Xenocarcinus depressus Miers
a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 9200 ft. S. 72° W. from offshore end cf Government Station jetty (on S. portion of northern main island) just S. of main passage out of lagoon (Rawa ni Karoro) where coral shoals, known as Jon te ra Bata, begin to deepen. From area where patch reefs rise above the limesand bottom at 16 ft. depth; July 29, 1951; P. HE, Cloud; Loc. GOC-27: 1 spec.
Subfamily Pisinae
Tylocarcinus styx (Herbst) a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P. E. Gloud; Loc. C.—7A: 2 spec, b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 6, 19h9; P. E, Cloud; Loc, D5: 1 spec.
SN
Subfamily Hyasteninae
Micippoides angustifrons A. Milne Edwards a. N. of Kahongi Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer end of channel, and from outer beach pavement flats of outer reef in same area; July 25, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 199h: 1 spec.
Perinea tumida Dana
ae Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 19h9; P. E, Cloud; Loc. D-6: 3 spec,
be Ine Anchorage, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from coral rock on reef flat; August and July, 1950; J. H. Wells; Loc. 6: 1 spec.
¢. Onotoa, Gilbert) Islands; August 20; LOST; Pik. Cloud. ismecs
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; from Focillopora coral, ocean shelf, 25 feet deep; August 10, 1951; A. EH. Banner; Loc f-X: 1 spec.
e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; from Pocillopora; August 6, 1951; A, H. Banner; Loc. A-1: 3 spec.
f.-Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; on sponges; August 6, 1951; A. H, Banner; Loc; A-17: 2 spec. i
Subfamily Majinae
Cyclax suborbicularis (Stimpson) a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. EH. 1-702: 1 ovig. female,
Subfamily Mithracinae Micippa parca Alcock
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 19h9; F. Cloud; Loc. D-7: 1 spec.
dll
Micippa platipes Rifppell
ae Donkolo Agingan, Saipan, Marianas Islands; in pool at edge of low tide; May h, 1949; collector, Mrs. David; P.. EB. Cloud: 1 spec. i
bs Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 2, 1951; A. H. Banner: Loc. A=7: 1 spec.
ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 2, 1951; 4, H. Banner; Loc. A-8-9: i ispe'c.
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. BE, Strasburg; Loe MLE sehspe cs
Family Parthenopidae Subfamily Parthenopinae
Daldorfia horrida (L.) a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas; May 13, 199; P.. E. Cloud; Loe. DAs) Arispec. b. Arno Atoll; Marshall Islands; 1950;:R. Wl Hiatt; (oe. sea2—17ie i spec.
Subfamily Sumedoninae
Bumedonus convictor Bouvier & Seurat a. North end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; commensal on anal plate region of Banded eee Ne Poison Sea Urchins (Echinothrix diadema (1.)), one on each Urchin of good size; 3 from pockets (sandy bottom, etc.) in inner reef only, near lagoon edge of reef in transect area at night; September 2, 1952; J. P. E. Morrisons; Loc. 226: 2 spec.
Harrovia purpurea Gordon ae Kwadak, Kwajalein Atoil, Marshall Islands; on Comanthus bennetti (J, ‘Muller ), 3-) fms. deep; July 1, 1951; F. Ey Cloud: dh spec.
BRA CHYRHYN CHA
Family Portunidae Subfamily Caphyrinae
Caphyra ‘rotundifrons (A. Milne Edwards) a. Lagoon north of Matuis Beach, NW, Saipan, Marianas Islands; picked from head of brovm Acropora; December 12, 196; P. E. Cloud: 1 spec.
Lissocarcinus orbicularis Dana a. Matuis Beach, Wi. Saipan, ilarianas Islands; commensal in black holothurian, 5 crabs in 100 host specimens, four of them found within host at oral end, fifth had crawled out; color alive, ‘black with white spots; (elie eityes 19 » LONG S7F gH Clouds) Si Spece
Subfamily Portuninac
Charybdis crythrodactyla (Lamarck) a. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer reef, fishnet naehbe July 22, obese. Po Big Morrison; Loe Ad 9725 LO en SEC be South end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer reef, fishing at night; mostly from near edge of
outer reef, a little behind the Lathothamdon ridge; July 22, 1952
Se eA Pes Morrison; Loc. 1979-1983: 3 spec. —
Ce Oneroa Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; outer recf, zone just behind ane indie) oan ridge or in it, at night; August ), 1952; J. P. &. Morrison; Loc. 202: 1 spec.
Portunus (Cycloachelous) pranulatus (H, Milne Edwards)
ae Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. EB. 1-16: 1 spec.
be. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. , Hiatt; Loc. BE, 1-35: 1 spec.
ce 4rno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; loc, BE. 2-21: 1 spec.
d. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. B. 2-57: 1 spec.
Oris
e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; clean limesand flat in the vicinity of a point about 3000 ft. E. of Aontewna, NW. Onotoas area exposed at mid-tide; August 21, 1951; P. E. Cloud; Loc. GOC-l\2: 1 spec.
f. South end of Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; white swimming crab hiding in the fine white sands; August 7, 1952;
Jigoe <E) Morrisons oc. 2078s i specs
Portunus (Hellenus) longispinosus (Dana)
a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. BE, 2-505: 2 UN's
be. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 19, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. ‘-l: 1 spec. Qi
ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. EH. Strasburg; Loe, oie ihs 8) spec. :
d. Opekea Saeed Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; small and fragile sand crabs oor sandy bottom of shallow tide pool remaining at low tide, at nights; at SE. point of island; August 26, 1952; J.P. He Morrisons Loe, 21967) 2 spec. (1 ovags Poneto
Thalamita admete (Herbst)
Ae Saipan, Marianas Islands; from a single large head of «cropora leptocyathus; April 7, 19195 F. EB. Cloud: 1 spec.
Matuis Beach, NW, Saipan, Marianas Islands; taken mostly from clump of brown Acropora and partly from Pocillopora damicornis cespitosa; December 17, 191.8; P. BE. Cloud: 5 spec.
ce Lagoon west of Saipan, een as Islands, April: 12. 199i asin
-Cloud: loc. A-5: 2 spec. d. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands: ‘pri 27); LOWS Ee Be Cloud; Loe. A-7: 2 ace Ce Ono as Gilbert Islands; July 11, 1951; 4, H. Banner; Loc. 4-): 26) spec. f. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 19, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc, A-h: ( SPCC. (qe) ge Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 2, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, #=-7: di Spe Cis he Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 13, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, A-Z (=2?): 6 spec. :
ie Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. E. Strasburg; LOC) ie, Geb seh ‘see.
je Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; NV, Onotoa about 1300 ft. NE. from Namokoro, in an area of gravelly sand bottom with maximum depths of about 12-1h ins. at low tide and with occasional heads of digitate Porites lobata; August 21, 1951; P. E, Clouds Loc, GOC-39: 2 spec.
b
°
Thalamita coeruleipes Jacquinot
ae Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 15, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. BES: 3 spec.
be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; S. portion of northern main island, about 800 ft. SW. from the offshore end of Government Station jetty and 1200 ft. directly offshore from the lagoon end of the, Pacific Science Board campstrip: July 125, 1951; .P.’ E. Clouds; Loc, GOC-22: .1 spec.
a eee
Thalamita danae Stimpson a, Arno itoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. B 2-306: 1 ovig.e female.
Thalamita ? edwardsi Borradaile a, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-7: 3) Spec. be Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-308: 1 ovig. female. . Thalamita ? intermedia Miers a. 4rno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-503: 1 spec.
Thalamita picta’ Stimpson a, lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 7, ee oi Eis Clouds; Loc, A.=11; from coral heads in to 6 ft. water:
1 spec. be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 11, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc. A-h:
‘12 spec. ce. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 1$, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc. A-h:
1: spece (q.) de Onotoa, Gilbcrt Islands; August 2, 1951; A. H. Banners; Loc. 4A 8-9:
1 spec.
@. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; Jugvst 4, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc. A 10-12: il spec.
f, Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 20, 1951;.4. H. Banner; Loc. A! ll: 3 spec.
g. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. E. Strasburg; acy tie. iil) specs
he Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE. end of reef arca knomm as Rakai iti, ©. side of big windward point of reef near center of the atoll; collected fron + mile strip across the reef; sugust 20, 1951; P. E, Cloud; Loc, GOC-36: 1 spec.
i. South cnd of Nearunaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; sandy pavement flats near shores July 23, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 1977: 1 spec.
Thalamita pilumnoides Borradaile
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P. E, Cloud; loc. C-7as 2 spec.
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 1949; P. E, Cloud; Loe. D-6%' 5 spee.
c. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands ; May 13, 199; P. =. Cloud; Loc, D-8: 6 yen
d. Lagoon ‘west of Sa aipan, Marianas Islands ; June 20, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. h, 500 yaeh NNE, of Marfagaha Tease 1 spec.
Thalamita prymna (Herbst) a. 4rno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-5:
1 spec.
b. ‘Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2+151: h spec.
ce dirno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-307: 1 spec.
1 BR aks
Thalamita quadrilobata Miers a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; toward S.endof a lee reef stretch known as Rakai Ati, in an area of small coral patches fairly thickly interspersed on limesand and coral debris. The bottom is at depths of 3=, ft. at dow tides July (265) M951: Ee i, Clouds oe! GOC&2l 2) iispect
Thalamita wood-masoni, Alcock a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 8, 199; P. H, Clouds; Loc. B-2; taken from vegetation and sand brought up by diving with face plate: 2 spec.
Thalamita spec. a. Saipan, Marianas Islands; 1919; P. E. Cloud; Loc, D.-8: 1 juv. be Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef flats; duds Seidos52- Or, He vworrisoni:’ Loc, 16654, -1) spec.
Thalamitoides quadridens (A. Milne Edwards)
ai /iLagoon. west) of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 12, W9hOr Pea. Cloud: Loc. +5: 9 spec. i
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 1949; P. He Clouds) Loe. (Cajiss) 3 spec.
c. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P, EH, Cloud; Loc, D-7: 5 spec.
d. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 5, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. E=7; from coral rock: 2 spec.
e. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 199; P. HE. Cloud; Loc. lh, 500 yds. NNE,. of Managaha Island: 2 spec.
f, Onotoa, Gilbert, Islands; about’ 9200, ft. S. 72°... from orishore end of Government Station jetty (on S. portion of northern main island) just 5. of main passage out of lagoon (Rawa ni Karoro) where coral shoals known as Aon te ra Bata begin to deepen. From area where patch reefs rise above the limesand bottom at 16 ft. depths July. 29, 19513: P.. 8.) Clouds ‘Loc.GOt=27: 1 spec.
ge Onotoa,, Gilbert Islands; slightly less than h miles N. 85° W, from jiiaki Maneaba in outer lagoon. Patch reefs rising above limesand surface at ll ft, to within 6 ft. of the surface; July 30, 1951; P. B. Cloud; Loc, GOC-28:,..1 spec.
h. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 9300 ft. N. 30° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba in S,. part of Te Rawa Tckatobibi, a pass through the S. end of the leeward reef. Collected from patch reefs rising to an occasional maximum of within h ft. of the surface from a bottom sounded at 18 ft.; August 23, 1951; P. E. Cloud; loc. GOC-53: 1 spec.
i. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 13,00 ft. S. 75° W. from Aiaki Maneaba in the deep central part of the lagoon, ‘The bottom is of low scattered dead and living coral patches on intervening limemud and limesand about 30-lj0% seds. and 60-70% coral; fugust 25, 1951; P. E. Clouds; Loc. GOC-55: 1 spec.
Subfamily Catoptrinae Carupa laeviuscula Heller a. Homohomo Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; under rocks
near shore; July 21, 1952; J. P, E. Morrison; loc, 1962: 1 spec. oy ih
Catoptrus nitidus 4, Milne Edwards a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; tidepool in Heliopora flat, 2 ft. deep; August wy 1951; ty! Hee Bannersie Lispec.
Libystes spec. @. Saipan, Marianas Islands: April h, 199; F. E. Cloud; loc, A-8, takon from dead coral and algal rock at a devth of about 10 ft.: 1 spec.
Family Atelecyclidae Subfamily Thiinae
Kraussia rugulosa (Krauss) a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; 2. W. Hiatt; Loc. BE. 1-hh: ait Spec. b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 7, 19h9 Cloud; Loc. A+-11, from coral head in -6 ft. of water e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; Heliopora flat, tidepool, 2 f August! I. 195): 4. Her Banners 1 specs
Family Xanthidae Actaea cavipes (Dana)
a, Saipan, Marianas Islands; January 30, 199; P. E. Cloud: 1 spec.
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 12, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. 1-5: 3 spec.
ec. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; P. 3, Cloud; Loc. D-5: 1 spec.
de Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; -ugust 8, 1951; 4, H. Banner; Loc, Bel: | spec.
ee Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; S. part of northern main island, about 800 ft. SW. from the offshore end of Government Station jictty and 1200 ft. directly offshore from the lagoon end of the PSB campstrip; July 25, 1951; P. B. Cloud; Loc. GOC-22:..1 spce.
f, Butaritari Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about + mile E. offshore from the central part of Bikati Island, in pocket of broad area of Heliopora reef, NW. Butaritari; September 3, 1951; P, E. Cloud; Loc. GBC-2: 1 spec.
ge Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia iitoll, Tuamotu Islands; from coralline algae from outer reef margin, N. end of island; September 3, 19526 de Fe Ly Morrisons, Loc\) 2292) (0) spec.
Actaca hirsutissima (Rttppel1) @, Saipan, Marianas Islands; P. E, Cloud; Loc. C-IX: 1 spec. b. Lagoon. west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; F. E. Cloud; Loc. D-5: 2 spec. ce. Lagoon west of Saipan, Merianas Islands; May 3, 199; .P. E. Cloud; Loc. E-h: 2 spec,
Actaea lata Borradaile &, Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 9, 199; P. BE. Cloud: ‘Loe. Cals..1 ovies! female, b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; (ipril 10,199; P, E, Cloud; Loc. C-7a: 2 spec.
AAU)
ec. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199: P. E. Cloud; Loc. D-5: 1 spec.
die Lagoon. west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 199; P. E, Cloud; Loc. ht, 500 ae NNE. of Mafiagaha Island 1 spec.
e. Nado Island, Likiep Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1951-1952; F. S. MacNeil: Loc. 827: 1 spec.
Actaea polyacantha (Heller) .
a, Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199: P. HE. Gloud; Loc, Gs (2 2) Le spee
De Lagoon west of S a llarianas Is! ands; June 20, 1949; F. B. Cloud; Loc. h, 500 yds. NNE.-of Menagaha Island: . 3: spec,
es Onotoa, Gilbert Tai lands; back ridge trough, about 600 ft. offshore from Pacific Science Board camp at the outer margin of the windwerd recf, just inshore from the algal ridge and surge channels. This part of the rccf never drics even at low tide and generally has at least a foot or two of water above it; ugusity Wa ulo sil iki Wien Cliouds) Woe. GOCB2e) Anispecs
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE, end of reef area known as Rekai aio, S side on big wincwaz rd point of reef near center of atoll. Collected from $+ mile strip across the reef; August 20, HOST Pee, Cloud boc. GOC{363° (I spec.
e. South Loi Island, vad ialein £toll, Marshall Islands; windward reef flat; 1951-1952. F, S, MacNeil; Loc, 892 -l specis
Actaea rufopunctata (H. Milne reds) a. “tno Atoll, TSrshall Isicnds : 1950s .8. Wi. Hiatis. Loe. ESndeseer Liuspec, : b. Onotoa, Gilbert Islends; about 3% miles N, 319 .W..from Tabuarorac Naneaba near the ecnter of Te tawa ni Bae, a pass. in the 5. part of the leeward recf. From thickly set coral masses Pe eiab from 15 £6. "Gsounded at low tide) .of water to within 8 tts. lO fts of: the surface locally; August 23, 1950: RY ES Cileud: Loc. GOC-51: 1 spec. (with Rhizocephalan). ce Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef: Jala Ti OSes <di .ePs Ee Morrison: Loca we77:, dlivspees
Actaea speciosa (Dana) a. 4rno Jitoll, Marshall. Islands; 2950; R.. Waidiatts Loe.) 1e3go: h spec.
Actaca spec. aff. speciosa Maya ae Onotoa, Gilbert: Tslends; about 3+ miles N. 31° W from Tabuarorae Naneaba near the center of Te Kawa ni Bao, a pass in thee, eo of.the leeward recf. From one set coral'masscs rising from 15 ft. (sounded at low tide) of water to within 8 ft. = 10 ft. of the surface locally; August 23, 19513. BP, &. Clouds: Loe, GOC=5il: 2 spec.
Actaea superciliaris Odhner
a. Lagoon west of Saip pan, Marienas Islands; spral) 10, 199: Pi Bs -Cloud; loc. C-7a: 1 spec.
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Island
Cloud; Loc. 4, 500 yds. NNE, of Mana
7 Le
ss June 20,.19)9; P. E. raha ‘Island: l.spec.
eae
ce Homohomo Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from under rocks, ete., near shore; July 21, 1952; J. P..E. Morrison; Loc. 1962: 3 spece
Actaca tomentosa (H. Milne Edwards) vA | ae Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; loc. E 2-175: iL spec.
Atergatis’? dilatatus De Haan a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 10, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc, ©-7a: 1 spec.
Atergatis floridus (L.) a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc, D-5: h spec,
b. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 19503 R. W. Hiatt; Loc. BE 1-386: 1 iw. es Arno Atoll, Marshall islands; 1950; Kk, W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-3: 3 spec. d. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands ss 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-170:
3 spec.
e. Bikati Island, Butaritari Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about $ mile E. offshore Pron the central aos of Bikati Island in pocnee of broad arca of Heliopora reef, Mi, Butaritaris September 3, 1951; P. E. Cloud; Loc, GBC-2: 1 spec.
Atergatopsis signatus (Adams & Whitc) a. South end Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer reef, fishing at night, mostly fen near edge of outer reef, a little ohana the Lithothamnion ridge; July 23, 1952; J. P, E, Morrison; Loc. 1979-1983: 1 spec.
Carpilius convezxus (Forskal) a. South end Nearumaoa Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reer, fishing at night, mostly from near edge of outer reef, a little behind the Lithothamnion ridge; July 23, 1952; J. P. EH, Morrison; Loc, 1979-1983: SPCCe
Carpilius maculatus (L.) a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; tidepool in Heliopora flat, 2 fect deep; August 1, 1951; A. H. Banner: 1 juv. b. South end Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer reef, fishing at night, mostly from near edge of outer reef, a little behind the Lithothamnion ridge; July 23, 1952; J. P, E. Morrison; Loc. 1979-1983: 5 spec.
Carpilodes bellus (Dana) a. Saipan, Marianas Islands; April h, 1949; P. EH. Cloud; Loc, A-8; taken from dead coral and algal rock, ca. 10 ft. oe e ape os b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 12, 199; FP. 8, Clouds; Loc. A-5: h spec. : | ce lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 27, 1919; P. E. | Cloud; Loc, A-7: 1 spec. | dis Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 1949; F. E. Gioud; Loc, D-5: 11 spec.
SG
@. Onotoa, Gilbert) islands) tidepool in Heltopore) Plat. 2 ib. deep; august 1, 1951; A. H. Banner:- I spec.
f. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; sugust 8, 1951; 4, H. Banners; Loc. Beh: 5 spec.
ge Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; slightly less than ) miles N. 85° W, from Aiaki Maneaba in cuter lagoon. Patch reefs rising above the limesand surface at 1 ft. to within 6 ft. of the surface; July) 30, 2O5is)'P. Mi Clouds) Loe, GOC=28: Ti spec.
h. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; -about 13,00) ft. 5. 750 W..from Miter Maneaba in the deep central part of the lagoon, The bottom is of low scattered dead and living coral patches on pntervening limemud and limeBand about 30-h0% seds. and 60-70% coral; Aueust) 25, 1952s Po Eo Clouds Loc, GOC=55:) "lv specs
Carpilodes edwardsi (Kossmann) a. Arno Atoll, Marshall: Islands; 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc, E 1-651: 1 spec.
Carpilodes monticulosus 4. Milne Edwards de Lagoon west “of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 1949; P. Es Cloud;
Loc, (C-fae 1 Lispee. be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; Jiugust 2h, 1951; A. H, Banner; Loc, 4—XVI: Li SpeCs
ce Onotoa, Gilbert Tete ade about 34 miles N, 319 W. from Tabuarorae Mancaba near the center of Te Rawi ni Bao, a pass in the 5, part of the leeward-reef, Collected from thickly set coral masses rising from 15 ft. (sounded at low tide) of water to within about 8 ft, - 10 ft. of the surface locally; August 23, 1O5u- PH. Clouds Loc, GOC-Sil<e' ‘lPisree’
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 9300 ft. N. 30° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba in S, part of Te Rawa Tekatobibi, a pass through the S. end of the leeward reef, Collected from patch reefs rising to an occasional maximum of within ); fect of the surface from a bottom sounded at 18 ft.; August 23,.1951; P, E. Cloud; Eee. GOC=53: 2 spec.
Carpilodes rugatus (H. Milne Edwards) a. North end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia itoll, Tuamotu Islands; from coralline algae from eutes reef margins; September 3, 1982
dd, vi Morrvasonis; Loe 22523) | ovae es tematic.
\
Carpilodes scmigranosus (De Men)
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; Cloud: Loc. h, 500 yds. NNE. of Managa
evo me 20, LONG'S Jb anes raha J Saas "i spec
Carpilodes tristis Dana .-
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; 2g ONO Gin ers. Clouds oc. Jk=/ck od spec.
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Telaneete May 131993 Pl oi. Cloud; Loc..D-7: 1 spec.
c. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R; W, Hiatt; Loc. E 1-622: 1 spec.
ds Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; in’ coral ?sehusust 93) 0950372. 0n, Banner;. Loc, B=5: 2 spec.
- GB-
e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; S. portion of northern main island, about 800 ft. SW. from the offshore end of Government Station jetty - and 1200 ft. directly offshore from the lagoon end of the Pacific Science Board campstrip; July 25, 1951; P. E. Cloud;
Loc. GOC-22: 1 spec.
Chlorodiclla barbata (Borradaile)
a, Saipan, Marianas Islands; nolan Pak, Giioudls Loc, C-IX: 2 oe
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, } Marianas Islands; lpr 12) VOhOs FP 1. Clouds; Loc. 5: h : Sectans
c. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 8, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc, B-2; taken from vegetation and sand brought up by divine with Paceplate: 67 spec.
d. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc, D-5: 18 spec.
e. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 3, 199; P. HE. Cloud; Loc, B-lj: 2 spec.
f. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 8, 1951; ’. H. Banners; Loc, Beh: 23 spec.
ge Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; S. portion of northern main island, about 800 ft. SW. from the offshore cnd of Government Station jetty and 1200 ft. directly offshore from the lagoon end of the Pacific Science Board campstrip; July 25, 1951; P. E. Cloud; Loc, GOC-22: lh spec.
he Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 1 mile S, 32° W, from Tekawa church at lagoon margin of 5. end of Aon te Baba recf stretch. From patch reefs rising above 9 ft. (reduced to mcan low tide) limesand bottom to within 1 ft. of the surface; July 31, 1951; P, E, Clouds; Loc. GOC-29: 2 spec.
i. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; NJ, Onotoa about 1300 ft. NE. from Namokoro, in an area of gravelly sand bottom with maximum depths of 12-1) ins. at low tide and with occasional hcads of digitate Porites lobata; August 21, 1951; P. E. Cloud; Loc. GOC-39:
2 spec.
je Onotoa, Gilbert eee about 13,00 ft. 5. 75° W. from Aiaki Maneaba in the deep central part of the ie@eaans The bottom is of low scattered dead and living coral patches on intervening limemud and limesand about 30-),0% seds. and 60-70% coral;
August 25, 1951; P. BE. Clouds; Loc. GOC-55: 1 spec.
k. Bikati Island, Butarite ari Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about + mile E. offshore from the central are of Bikati Island in nowiead of broad area of Heliopora reef, NM’, Butaritari; Septomber Ds 1951; P. E. Clouds Loc. GBC-2: 3 spec.
Chlorodiella cytherea (Dana)
a. Saipan, Marianas Islands; feoe a Single large head of «icropora leptocyathus; ‘April 7, 19h195 P, He Cloud: °1-spec.
be Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 7, 19h93; P. E. Cloud; Loc, A-11; from coral heads, h-6 ft. decp: 1 spec.
Ce Lagoon. west of Saipan, 3 Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P. E. Cloud; loc. C-7a: 2 spec. .
d. Lagoon ‘yest of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 19.9; P. E. Cloud; Loc. D=5: i spec.
api
ec» Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; P. EB. Cloud; Loc. D-6: 2 spec,
ie lacnee ees of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, “19h9; PF. E. Clouds; Loc. h, 500 yds. NNE. of MaBagaha Usland "17 specs
g. Bikati Island, Butariteri Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about + mile E. offshore from the central part of Bikati Island in pocket of broad area of Heliopora recf, NW. Butaritari; September 3, 1951; Pec. Cloud; Loc.) GB2e.) Il specs : i
hs Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 1 mile S, 32° W, from Tekawa church at eae margin of 5S, end of reef stretch known as 4on te Baba; from patch reefs rising above 9 ft. (reduced to mean low side) limesand bottom to within 1 ft. of the surface; July 31, 19515: P, my? Cloud Loe GOC=29 3 do'spec,
Chlorodiclla laevissima (Dana)
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands $ May 6, 1949; P, E. Cloud; Logs DE64\7) speck
be Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 19h9; P. E. Cloud; Loe. h, 500 yds. NNE. of Managaha Team 17 spee.
Ge Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 8600 ft. N. 18° W, from Tabuarorae Maneaba in 17 ft. water mean low tide; August 10, BALE the Peli Cloud; Loc, GOC-35: 1 spec.
de Onotoas Gilbert Islands; SE, end of Rakai Ati reef area, 5. side of big windward point of recf near center of atoll. Collected from = mile strip across the reef; sugust 20, LOS Vey? ig Cloud; Loc, GOC-36: 1 spec. :
Ceo Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 32 miles N. 31° W. from Tabuarorac Maneaba near center of Te Rawa'ni Bao, a pass in the S. part ‘of the leeward reef. Collected from thickly set coral masses rising from 15 ft. (sounded at low tide) of water to within about 8 ft. - 10 ft. of the surface locally; ugust 235 19513 P, Ee, Clouds Loe. GOG=5iis 3° specs
Chlorodiclla nigra (Forsk41) -
a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 8, 1951; 4, H. Banner; Loc, Bh: L9 spec.
b. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; 5. portion of northern main island, about 800 ft. SW. from the offshore end of Government Station jetty and 1200 ft. directly offshore from the lagoon end of the Pacific Science Board campstrip; July 25, 1951; P, EK. Cloud: Loc. GOC-22: 13 spec. :
ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 1 mile 5, 32° W. from Tekawa church at lagoon margin of 5. cnd of reef stretch known as Aon te Baba. Collected from patch reefs rising above 9 ft. (reduced to mean low tide) limesand bottom to within 1 ft. of the surface; July 31, 1951; P. E, Cloud; Loc, GOC-29:
1 spec.
ad. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 13,00 ft. S. 75° W. from Aiaki Maneaba in the deep central part of the lagoon. The botton is of lov scattered dead and living coral patches on intervening linemud and linesand about 30-10% seds. and 60-70% coral; August 25, 1951; P. E. Clouds; loc. GOC-55: 12 spec.
Chlorodopsis areolata (H. Milne Edwards) a. Onotoa; Gilbert Islands; tidepool in Heliopora flat, 2 ft. deep; August 1, 1951; 1. Ho Banner: spec,
mies
be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; ingust 2, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, s-7: 2 SPeCe
e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August’ 2, 1951; 4, H. Banner; Loc. 8-8-9: h spec.
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; -iugust h; 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. «.-10-12: 3 spec. : |
e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; sugust 8, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. B-l: "spec.
f.: Onetoa, Gilbert Islands; sugust 15, 1951; “.. H. Banner; loc, B-8: L spec. .
g. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; Novomber 16, 1951; D..E. Strasburg; hoes G21= LPs 6 Aue
h. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE. end of reef area knovm as Rakai
ati, S, side of big windward point of roef near center of the
atod Lg irom a + mile Strip oem the reef; jugust 20, 1951;
P, EB. Cloud: Loc, GOC-36: 3 spe
i. Homohomo Is sland, Raroia Atoll, eee Islands; from under rocks; near shore; ae ALS? # di, Pe Eg Morrison; fine 1962: J specs
?
Chlorodopsis me slanodactylus «i. Milne Edwards
a, oaipan, Marianas Islands; April h, 1949; P. BE. Cloud; Loc. «8; taken from dead coral and algal rock at a depth of about 10 ft: - specs
be Lagoon west of Boe Marianas Islands; apEeL LO MeL 9 sy Poy Bie Cloud; Loc. C-7az: 10 spec.
cs Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May. 6, 19495 Pe By Cloud; Loc. D-6: h spec.
dis Mae don west of Saipan, Marianas islands; June 20, LONG gP oth, Cloud; Loc. h, 500 met) NNE. of Manegaha Island: 17 spec.
Ce Onotos, Gilbert Islands; July 26, 1951; Ay Hy Banners Loc.) 6: 3 Spe ca
£, Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August h, 1951; .. H. Banner; Loc. iimlOn122 2 spec.
ee es Gilbert Islands; August 6, 1951; 4, H, Banner; Loc. Bal: 5 spec. :
h. ‘Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; Heliopora flat, tidepool, 2 ft. decp; Aneust 1, 1951; A. H. Banner: .2 spec.
‘i, Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. E, Strasburg; logy atte | specs
je Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE, end of Rakai ’ti reef areca. 5. Side of big windward point of reef near center of the atoll. Fron + mile strip across the reef; August 20, 1951; F. E.
‘ Clouds Loe. GOC-36: 1 spec.
k. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; NW. Onotoa, about 1300 ft. NE. from Nemokoro, in an area of gravelly sand bottom with maximum depths of about 12-1) ins. at low tide and with occasional heads of Gigitate Porites’ lobatas sugust 22,'1951;'P. B, Gleud: Loc,
-GOC-39: 1 spec,
Cuil weird pilwnnoides (White) a, Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas’ Is slands; ioral) LO GehOeiib. E., Cloud; Loc, ‘C=7as 1 spec. b. Lagoon eee of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P..=. Clouds Loe. D8: 2 spec,
Ne gdp
ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE, end of Rakai 4ti reef area. 5. side of big windward point, of reef near center of the atolls drem $ mile strip across the reef; August 20, 1951; P. E. Cloud; Loc. GOC-36: 3 spec.
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 34 miles-N, 31° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba near the center of Te Rawa ni Bao, a pass in the 9.
- part of the leoward reef; from thickly set coral masses rising
from 15 ft. (sounded at low tide) of water to within about 8 Gt.'=/10 ft. of) the surface locally;. August) 234 195is) ora Cloud; Loc. GOC-51: 1 spec,
Ceo Onotone Gilbert. Islands; oo 9300 ft. N. 30° W, from Tabuarorae Maneaba in S,. part of Te Rawa Tekatobibi, a pass through the S. end of the leeward reef; from patch reefs rising to an occasional maximum of within h ft. of the surface from a botton sounded at 1S ites august 23, 195s «Ps E. Cloud; loc. GOC=53%: ticnec,
Chlorodopsis pugil (Dana)
ae Saipan, Marianas Islands; from a aunere large head of J Acropora
leptocyathus 5 April 7, Who: Ps.E. Clouds 2 spec.
aipan, Marianas Islands; P, E. Clouds; Loc. C-I¥: 1 spec.
aipan, Marianas Islands: hori l dh, 191195 Es E. Cloud; Loc. A isp
taken from dead. coral and algal rock at a depth of avenue 10 fhe:
3 spec.
d. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; jpril 27, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. 4—7: 7 spec.
e. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; pril 12, 19h9; F. E. Cloud; Loc, 1-5: 17 spec.
f, Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; april 9, 199; P. HE, Gloud; Loc. Gal: 2 spec.
ge Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. D5: 8 spece
he Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P. HE. Clouds Loc, D-7:..1 spec.
i. Lagoon Piece of Saipan, Marianas Islands; 4pril 19, 1949; P. k. Cloud; Loc, F-X: 2 spec.
je Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 19h9; P. E, Cloud; Loc. h, 500 yds. NNE. of Managaha Island: 8 spec.
ke Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; sugust 8, 1951; 1. H. Banner; Loc. Bh: 2 SPCCe i
1. Onotea, Gilbert Isldnds; S. portion of northern main island, .
- about 800 ft. SW. from offshore end of Government Station jctty and 1200 ft. directly offshore from the lagoon end of the Pacific Science Board campstrip; July 25, 1951; P, He Clouds Loc. GOC+22: 3 spec.
me Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; slightly less than miles N. 85° from .iaki Maneaba in outer lagoon; patch reefs rising sire -the limesand surface at 1) ft. to within 6 ft. of the surface; July 30, 1951s P.E. Cloud's Loc, G0C=28:: . liisper,
ne Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 1 mile S. 329 W. from Tekawa church at lagoon margin of S. end of Aon te Baba réef stretch; from patch reefs rising above 9 ft. (reduced to mean low de) limesand bottom to within 1 ft. of the surface; July 31, 1951; -P.-H.) Clouds GOC-29%) 7. specs
De Ce
(Ceanepaaes v a va
erin lees
0» Onotca, Gilbert Islands; NW, Onotoa, about 1300 ft, NE. from Namokoro, in an area of gravelly sand bottom with maximum depths of about 12-1); ins. at low tide and with occasional heads of digitate Porites lobatas; sugust 21, 1951; P. E. Cioud; Loc, GOC-39: 1 spec.
pe Onotoa, Gilbert Islends; about 13,00 ft. S. 75° Wi. fron Aiaki ianeaba in the deep central part of the lagoon; bottom of lor scattered dead and living coral patches on intcrvening limcmud and limesand about 30-l,0% seds. and 60-70% coral; -iugust 25, 1951; P. E, Cloud; Loc, GOC-55: 10 spec.
Cyclodius ornatus Dana
ae Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 8, 1951; «. H. Banner; Loc. B-h: 1 spec.
be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; 5. portion of northern main island, abovt 800 ft. SW. from the offshore end of Government Station jetty and 1200 ft. directly offshore from the lagoon end of the Pacific Science Board campstrip; July 25, 1951; P. H, Cloud; Loc, GOC-22: 1 spec.
Ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SH. end of Rakai iti reef areas; S. side of big windward point of reef near center of atolls; fron 4 mile strip across the reefs .ugust 20, 1951; F. E. Cloud; Loc. GOC-36: 1 spec.
d. Likiep toll, Marshall Islands; from corals growing on submerged sandy sediment on inner edge of reef between Nado and Likiep Islands; December, 1951; F. S. MacNeil; Loc. 830: 1 spec.
Cymo andreossyi (4udouin)
as Matuis Beach, NV, Saipan, Marianas Islands; talen mostly from clump of brovm «crcepora and partly from Focillopora damicornis cespitosa; December 17, 198; FP. E. Cloud: 2 spec.
be Lagoon west of Saipan, ilaricnas Islends; June 20, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. h, 500 yds. NNE. of Uanagaha Island: h spec.
Ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; sugust 8, 1951; .. H. Banner; Loc, B-l: 1 spec.
d. Gnotoa, Gilbert Islands; S. portion of northern main island, about 800 ft. Sli. from offshore end of Government Station jetty and 1200 ft. directly offshore from legoon end of Pacific Science Board campstrip; July 25, 1951; P. HE. Clouds; Loc. GOC-22: 3 spec.
ee Onotoa, Gilbert Islands: slightly less than miles N. 85° W. from siaki Maneaba in outer lagoons; patch reefs rising above the limesand surface at 1 ft. to within 6 ft. of the surface; July 30, 1951; P. E, Cloud; Loc. GOC-28: 1 spec.
f£. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE, end of Rakai Ati reef area, 5. side of big windward point of reef near center of atoll; from 4 mile strip across the reef; ivgust 20, 1951; P. BE. Cloud; Loc. GOC-36: 1 spec.
Cymo deplanatus «\. ililne Edwards a. Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer reef pavement area or zone near shore at night; August hk, 1952; ds) Bante lormgsons Loc. 200s usper.
eee ope
Gymo quadrilcbatus Miers a. Onotoe, Gilbert Islands; ocean shelf, from Pocillopora, 25 ft. deep; August , 1951; N. H. Banner; Loc. AZ" WD spec. b. Arno Ltoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt: Loc. # 1-620: 3 spec.
Dacryopilumnus rathbunae Balss
a. Hagman Point, Saipan, Marianas Islands; under rock; Decenber 26, 19,8; Py Ee Clouds 3°Specs
Daira perlata (Herbst)
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; “pril 9, 199; F. E. Cloud's) Loe.) Cal sii spec.
Dis Lagoon. west ‘of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 19h9; P. H, Cloud: Loc. Cafas) 2 spec,
ce Lagoon “west of Saipan, Mariarias Islands; May 6, 19h9; P. E. Cloud; Loe, D=5%' L ‘spec.
d. Legoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; P. Clouds; Loc. D-6: 6 spec.
e. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P. B. Cloud; Loc. D-8: h spec.
f, Legoon west of Saipan, Marianas eer June 20, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loe, 1500 vas. NNE. of Managaha Island: 7 spec.
Gis Onotoa, Gieert Islands; Jugust 4, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc. A-16: 1 spec.
h. Onetoa, Gilbert Ustandss “August 6, 1953". H,* Banners) Toeeyn—diy: 1 spec.
i. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia .itoll, Tuamotu Islands; the small purplish knobby crabs ( =Da aira) from holes in the boring sea urchin zone of Gissected pavement (algae covered); edge of outer reef, a little be hind the Lithothamnion ridge; fishing at night; ae 23, 1952; J. P. E. Wortison; Loc, 1979-1983: 16 spec.
le Nearund oa Island, Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer recf fishing at night; July 22, 1902; J. P, E, Morrison; Loc. 1972- LOW3s taspec. 3
k. 4rno toll, Marshall Islands; 19503 RK... Wy Hiatt: Loe, se ania 1 spec.
ea
Domecia glabra s:lcock a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; spril 7, 199; P. E. Clouds Loc. A=11, from coral heads in li-6) ft. of water: iicspec. b. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE, end of Rakai Ati reef area, 5. side of big windward point of reef near center of atoll; from 4 mile strip) across the reef;Augpust 20, 1951s. Pi Ee Clouds Loes GOC-36: 1 spec.
Dome cia hispide Hydoux & Bslnevat
as Cnoboa, Gilbert Isla nds3 “ugust , 1951; A. H. Banners; Loc. Als 3 SpPCCe
be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; ..ugust 6, 1951; 4, H. Banner; Loc. A-1y: 1 spec. (fron Pocillopora ai) j ah
ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE. end of Rakai iiti reef area, 5. side of big windward point of reef near center of atolls; from 5 mile strip across the reefs; Jugust 20, 1951; P, E. Cloud; Loc GOC-36: 3 spec.
He
we here
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands, about 34+ miles N, 31° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba near the center of Te Rawa ni Bao, a pass in the 5. - part of the leeward reef; from thickly set coral masses rising from 15 ft. (sounded at low tide) of water to within about 6 ft. = 10 ft. of the surface locally; August 23, 1951; P. E. Cloud; Loc. GOC-51: 3 spec.
Eriphia scabricula Dana a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 11, 1951; A, H. Banner; Loc, A-l: 2 SPEC. ? be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 19, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. A-h: 1 spec. (qu. ) ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 13, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, A-7: 1 spece d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islends; August 2, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. A-8-9: 3 spec. es Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 20, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, A-11: 1 spec. f, Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August h, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. A-10-12: 1 spec. g. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 15, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, B-8: h spece h. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. E. Strasburg; foe, A-I-Il: lp spee, i. North end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll Tuamotu Islands; imner reef flats near shore, mostly around larger rocks, active at night; September 2, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 22h5: 1 spece
Eriphia sebana (Shaw & Nodder)
ae Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July-August, 1951; A. H. Banner: 1 spec.
be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 9, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. B43: 7 spece
ce, Likiep Atoll, Marshall Islands; from reef between Nado Island and Likiep Island; at night by flashlight, low tide; December 1h, 1951: F. S,. MacNeil; Loc. 815: 3 spec.
d. Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from under rock just below low tide line at night on inner reef flats, 5. end Ob asland: August 7,<1952s\J.°P, HeaMorraison; Loc. »207 7:1 spec,
e. Ngarumaoa Island, Karoia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer reef, fishing at night, mostly from near edge of outer reef, a little behind the Lithothamnion ridge; S, end of Island; July 23, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 1979-1983: 1 spec.
f, North of Kahongi Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islends; from outer end of channel and from outer beach pavement flats of outer reef in same area; red eyed’ crab; July 25, 1952; J. FP. E. Morrisons; Loc, 199: 1 spec.
g. North end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Suamotu Islands; red eyed rock crab from pavement pool zone of outer reef, eating a Conus sponsalis (crushing it in crushing claw when caught ) at just about dusk, at low tide, out of water and active on reef flat at low tide at night apparently; August 31, 1952;
Je Pere dlormasonsihody 2232870) speey
- 20 -
h. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc. E 1-ks: 1 spec.
i. drno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E16: 1 spec. :
j. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E. 1-666: 1 spec.
ke Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-165¢ 1 spec.
1. Southwest corner of Opakea Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; red eyed rock crab from shore of channel’ at outer reef flab: August 2%, 952s 0. He we Morrisons Loc. 20972) 1 spews
Etisus (Etisodes) electra (Herbst)
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 12, 199; P.t.) Clouds: Moc ./ 354) ) ie ispec.
b. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. E. Strasburg; Loc. A=I=II: “2 spec.
Ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; slightly less than ) miles N. 85° W. from aiaki Maneaba in outer lagoons; patch reefs rising above the limesand surface at 1 ft. to within 6 ft. of the surface;
July 30, 1951; Ps BH. Cloud; Loc, GOC28: 2 spec.
Etisus (Etisodes) molokaiens is (Rathbun ) a. Saipan, Marianas Islands; 199; P. E, Cloud; Loc. D-9: 1 specs
Etisus (Etisodes) dentatus (Herbst) a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc. E 1-7: 1 spec. be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands: August 15, 1951; 4. H, Banner; Loc, B-8: 1 spec.
Etisus (Etisodes) splendidus Rathbun :
~ a, Ngarwmaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer rect fishing at paren. July 22. 1962 Jet ele Morrison; Loe gilotior. LOD Dispecs
b. South end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia atoll; Tuanotu Islands; from outer reef fishing at night, mostly from near edge of outer reef, a. little behind the Eabhoshanmen ridges July 23%) 10525 Jeveer kt, Morrisons: Loc, 1981: )-1. spec.
Ce South end of Opeaka Island, Xaroia toll, Tuamotu Islands: red erab. from inner reef.off. the 5..ends “ugust, 17, 1952: J.) By Be Morrison; Loc. (21352>,.1. spec.
Etisus (Etisodes) spec. a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 12, 199; P. H,. Clouds Loc. s-5: 1 spec.
Etisus (Etisus) laevimanus Randall a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; jugust 15, 1951; .\. H. Banner; Loc. Ba8: 1 spec.
Globopilumnus globosus (Dana) ae Nado Island, Likiep 4toll, Marshall Islands; 1951-1952; F. S. MacNeils Loc. 827: I spec.
-~ 21 -
b. West of Ailuk Island, 4iluk Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1c reef scaward side; 1951-1952; F. S. MacNeil; Loc. 8h7:
ec. North end of Ngarumeoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuanotu Isi fron holes in reef near Lithothamnion ridge; July 9, 195 J. P. E, Morrison; Loc. 190k: k spec.
d. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer reef ‘flats; July 11, 1952; J, P. &. Morrison; Loc. 1920: spec.
Heteropilumus integer (Miers) a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May h, 199; P. E. Cloud; E-8, from coral rock: 2 spec.
Juxtaxanthias tetraodon (Heller)
a. South end of Nearumiaoa Island, Raroia «toll, Tuaaotu Islands; from cuter reef fishing at night, mostly from near edge of outer reef, a little behind the Lithothannion ridge; July 23, 1952; ee. Be ilorrison; Loc. 1979-1983: spec.
b. Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from cuter reef, zone just behind the Lithothannion ridge or in it, at night; August , 1952; J. P. E, Morrison; Loc. 2042: 1. spec.
Lachnopodus tahitcnsis (De Man) a South end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; from outcr recf fishing at night, mostly eho near edge of outer reef, a little behind the ieerettemmion: ridge; July 235729523 de P, E. Morrison; Loc. 1979-1983: 2 spec.
Liocarpilodes armigor pacificus Balss
a, Lagoon west of Saipen, Marianas islands; .ipril 12, 199; P. E, Cloud; Loc, 1-5: 13 SPCC.
bs Lagoon west of Saipan, Merianas Islands; upril 27, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc, eh
ee lagoon: west of Sa Cloud; Loc, O-1:
the Ree ean ite est of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 19h9; P. E. Cloud; Loc. Ca7a: hi Spec.
e. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 19h9;.P. E. Cloud; Loc. D-5: 1 spec.
f. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P. BE, Clouds; Loc. D-7: 3 spec.
g. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; FP. E. Cloud; Loc. D-8: 5 spec.
2
ipan, Marianas. Islands; April 9, 1949; P. E. A SPCC. 2
Liocarpilodes integerrimus (Dana)
a. Lagocn west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 27, 19h9; FP. E, Clouds; Loc, 4-72) 2 spec,
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; «pril h, 19h9; Cloud; Loc. A-8, taken from dead coral at a depth of about 10 ft.: 2 spec.
c. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; spril 9, 199; FP. E Cloud; Loc. C-1l: 6 spec.
d. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; ipril 10, 199; P. E, Cloud; Loc. C-7a: 1 spec.
Eee Wien
e. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 19h9; P. HE. Cloud; Loc, D-5: ) 3B\Spec. _£. Lagoon rest ea Ge aipan, Marianas’ Islands! Mayl6, 2ouos Po. Cloud; Loc. D-6: blopee. oe Tebow west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; FP. EH, Clouds hoc. :D=72) a) cuec. h. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P. B. Cloud; Loc. D-8: 13 spec. i. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. h, 500 yds. NNE, of Managaha Island: 12 spec.
j. Saipan, Marianas Islands; 199s: P. E. Cloud; Loc, G:IX2) dspace, k, Ine “nchorage, «rno Atoll, Marshall an: from coral rock of reef fiat; July—sueust 1950s J. H. Wells; Loc, 6:° J spee,
1, Onotoa, Gilbort islands; slightly lcss than l miles N. 85°. We from .iaki Maneaba in outer lagoon; patch reefs rising above: the limesand surface at ir fb.) toiwithin 6) £b,, ofthe sumtiece: July 30,195; Py B.. Cloud: Loc,) GOC-28: . 1 spec.
sopheneeyEne pulchcllus .. Milne Sdwards a. Lagoon west of oo Marianas Islands; May 13, 19h9;) Py... Clouds) Loc.) C-7aen; 1 spec.
Lophozozymus superbus (Dana) &e Homohomo Island, Raroia sitoll, Tuamotu Islands; from under rocks,
etc., near-the shores July 21, 1952; J. P,. EH, Morrison; Loc. 1962: 1 spec.
Iybia tessclata (Latreilic) a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas) Islands; May 6, 19h9:. Pa Es Cloud; Loc. D-5: 1 spec. b. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; from Pocillopora; August.6, 19513 4. H. Banner: Loc. A-1l: 1 spec. c. Homohomo Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; wnder rocks, etc., near shore; July.21, 1952: J.P. EB, Morrisons boc, 19623) 2) spec.
lydia annulipes (H, Milne Edwards) a. arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt: Loc. E 2-508: L, spec. b. South Loi Island, Kwajalein ‘toll; Marshall Islands; windward reef flat; 1951-1952: F. 5, Mach a Loc, 89h? L specs ce Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia eol. Tuners Islands; edge of water at low tides Bate. reef flats opposite the village; sugust 23, 19523 J.P. ty Morrisons Loc. 217624 3.specs d, North end of Hearansoa Island, Raroia 4toll, Tuamotu Islands; at night at low tide on gravclly lagoon shore near beach rocks; fugust)i2) 1952s d5.P. ER. Morrison: Loc. 20354 2 spec. e. Puka Puka Island, Raroia.i:toll, Tuamotu Islands; landward edge _of outer reef flats on and under rocks; August 28, 1952; J.P. EH. Morrison; Loc.) 2209: (lL spec.
Medaeus clegans 4, Milne Edwards ae Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; toward S. end of Rakai iti lee reef stretch, in an area of small coral patches fairly thickly interspersed on limesand and coral debris, the bottom is at depths of, 3-l) ft. at low tides July, 264 JOS. Es Clouds Loc. GOC-2l): 1 spec.
Bie ie
Medaeus ? ornatus Dana. a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Ae tands3 Maye 13 9 dOhO. Py i. Clouds; Loc, D-7: 2 spec.
Paraxanthias notatus (Dana)
a. Unai, Finauchuluga, Saipan, “erienas Islands; January 30, 19)9; Pe a, Clouds 1 spec.
b. Lagoon N. of Uatuis Beach, NW, Saipan, Marianas Islands; from head of brown jcropora; Decertber 12, 198; P. E, Cloud: 1 spec.
c. Lagoon west of Scipan, Merianas eee: May 6, 199; F. E. Cloud; Loc. D-6: 6 spec.
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; from Pocillopora; August 6, 1951;
. H, Banner; Loc. alls 2 spec.
e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; back ridge trough, about 600 ft. offshore from Pacific Science Beard camp at the outer mergin of the wind- ward reef, just inshore from the algal ridge and surge channels; this part of the reef never dries even at low tide and generally has at least a foot or two of water above its; -iugust 1, 1951;
P, E, Cloud; Loc, GOC-32: 2 spec.
f. Nado Island, Likiep toll, Marshall Islands; 1951-1952; F. 5S. MacNeil; Loc. 827: 8 spec.
g. South Loi Island, Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands; windward reef flat; 1951-1952; F, 5, MacNeil; Loc. 89h: 2 spec.
Paraxanthias parvus (
» Lagoon west of S
boc. 1026s). (22.'5
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands ; dune 20, 19h9; Pa EB. Cloud; Loc. h, 500 ie NNE, of Managaha Islend: h spec.
Paroxanthias ponepensis (Rathbun) . @, 4rno utoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; BR. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-20: 2 Spec.
Phymodius laysani Rathbun ae Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 9300 ft. N. 30° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba in 5S, part of Te Rawa Tekatobibi, a pass through the south end cf the leeward reef; from patch recfs rising to an occasional maximum of within ) ft. of, the surface from a bottom sounded at 18 ft.3 «ugust 23, 1951; P. EB. Clouds Loc. GOC-53: 1 spec. be Nado Island, Likicp, “toll, Marshall Islands; 1951-1952: F. 5, MacNeil: Loc. 827: 1 spec. es West of iluk Island, siluk toll, Marshall Islands; seaward side of leeward reef; 1951-1952; F. S. MacNeil; Loc. 817: 1 spec. Phynodius nitidus (Dana ) a, Lagoon west of Saipan, Merianas Islands; Mey 6, 19h9; P. E, Cloud; Loc. D263. 3 spee.
Phynodius obscurus (lucas)
ae Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July-sugust, 1951; 1. H, Banner; Loc, B-5: 2 Spc.
kite
Phymodius ungulatus (H. Milne Edwards) Qe “a. Saipan, Marianas Islands; from single large head of Agropora deptocyathuss -ipral 7d oho. ae. Ey Clonds "vi specs be. Matuis Beach, NW. Saipan, Marianas Islands; taken mostly from clunp of brown Acropora and partly from Pocillopora demicornis cespitosa; December 17, 1948; P. 5. House 1 spec. c. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199: P. EB. Cloud; Loc. D-5: 3 spec. d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 15, 1951; 4, H, Banner; Loc. B-8: h spec. e. Bikati Island, Butaritari Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about 4 mile E. offshore from the central part of Biixati Island.in pocket of broad area of Hcliopora reef, NW, Butaritaris; September 3, 19515 Pipl, Cloud; Loc, GBC-2: 1 spec. f, Obikehoru Island, Raroia «atoll, Tuamotu Islands; brackish enclosed lagoon on econ side cf medina. July 29 5 19525 J. P, E, Morrison; Lee. ZOU: 2 ones
Pilodius pauotensis Rathbun a. Nado Island, Likiep toll, Marshall Islands; 1951-1952; FS. MacNeil; tee 827: ° 9 spec.
Pilwmnvs cursor 4, Milne Edwards
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; spril 12, 199; P. E. Clouds TGs 4-5: 1 spec.
b. Lagoon west. of Saipan, Marianas Islands: ipril) 10, 199; 2 ee Cloud ; ae C-7a: 1 spec.
¢. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May hh, 19h93 P18) Cloud; lee, E=6, from coral’ rock?. i spec.
d. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marienas.Islands; april 28, 1949; PE. Cloud; Loc. 2, from 4 ton block of dead coral-—algal rock taken On anchomion Mey S3bs) al spec.
Piluanus forskali coerulescens «1. iilne Edwards ii Onotoa, Gilbert Tslands; July 26, 1951; +. H, Banner; loc. m6 ¢
ispe ee b. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands: «iugust 2, 1951; 41, H. Ba “nner; Loc. A-8-9: spec.
c. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; tidepool in Holaepors flab.) 2) fueadeeps Hugust 1, MOS aii, Banners 2 specs Pilumnus tahitensis De Man a. irno Ltoll, Marshall Islands; 19503 R. W. Hiatt; Loc, EH 2-515# lL spec.
Platypodia granulosa ce
a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands: August 8, 1952; .. H, Banner; Loc, Beli: 3 spec.
b. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; 5. portion of northern main island, about 800 ft. SW. from the offshore end of Government Station jetty and 1200 ft. directly offshore fron the lagoon, end of the’ Pacific Science Board campstrip; July 255) L9Sis Pia.E i Glouds Loc, )G0G=22¢ 1 spec. .
Platypodia senigranosa (Heller) a, Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; P. EB. Cloud; Logs, Dabs. spec. b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 19:9; P. HE. Cloud; Loc. , 500 yds. NNE. of Managaha Island: 1 spec.
Pscudozius caystrus (H. Milne Edwards)
a. 4rno atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. !. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-668: 1 spec.
b. South Loi Island, Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Islands; windward reef flat; 1951-1952; F. S, MacNeil; Loc. 89): 1 skin.
ce. Takoke Island, Raroia itoll, Tuamotu Islands; under stones about eh tide linc or ai tithe below; duly 22, 19525 J. Ps By Morrisons Loc, 1968: 1 spec.
Xanthias lomarcki (H. Milne Edwards)
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; «ipril 12, 199; P. 8. Clouds Loc. 1-5: 1 spec.
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; -ipril 7, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. «+11, from coral heads, 4-6 ft. watcr: 1 spec.
ec. Lagoon west. of Saipan, Marianas Islands; “pril 19, 199; P. B. Glovds Loc. Fc: 2 spec,
d. pian Gost of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 199; P. 5. Cloud; Loc. ), 500 yds. NNE. of HNanagoha Island: 3 spec.
Ce Qnotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 12, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc, +1: 1 spec.
f. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 11, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc. «ixh: lh spee.
g. Onctoa, Gilbert Islands; July 19, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. wih: 1 ‘spec. (qu. )
he Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; sugust 2, 1951; 1. H. Banners; Loc. «i+8-9: 2 spec,
i.e Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; sugust h, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc, ii+-l0-12: 3 spec.
je Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; -iugust 8, 1951; «. H, Banner; Loc. Bh: ( spec.
k. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; -iugust 15, 1951; «.. H. Banner; Loc, B-8: 1 spec.
1. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. E. Strasburg: 1, spec. me Homohomo Island, Raroia atoll, Tete bt dslands; from under rocks, ete., near sincincs July 21, 1952; SwoP, B Morrisons Loc.) 1962
1 spece
ne South end of Ngarumaca Island, Raroia «toll, Tuanotu Islands; ocd reef fishing at night, mostly from near edge of outer reef,
» Little behind the Lithothamnion ridge: July: 23,. 19523 J.P. 2.
fie Loc. 1979-1983: 1 spec.
o. Lagcon west (of Sarpan,) Marianas Isiands: wipril 10, 199s FP. Cignd. Loc. (Ge fag vspec.
Xanthias punctatus (H. Milne Edwards)
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; P. E, Cloud:
loc. D-6: 1 spec,
- 26 =
Xantho exaratus (H. Milne Edwards)
a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands: July 12, 195i. Hy Banners Loc, weds 6 spec.
bs Onotoa, Gilbert Ustands: July 13, 1951: 4. su Benner oes cl i specs
c. South end of Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; white rock crab from inner reef flats just below low tide line; fugust 7, 1952; J. P. &, Morrisons) Loe, (20782) Gspec.
Xantho gracilis (Dana) ae Opakea Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; speckled crab under rocks below low tide, SE. point of island; August 26, 1952; J. P. EH, Morrison; Loc, 2196: 1 spec.
Xanthe sanguincus (H. Milne Edwards) 4. “rno. Atoll, Marshall Islands:.1950; R, W. Hiatt: Loc, # lehe:
h spec.
b. “rno toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. H 1-6 1 spec.
ec, 4rno toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; (Loc, 2/1667: 3 spec. .
d. orno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loe, Bi2-7s wuspec.
e, 4eno “toll Marshall islands; LOSO; NR. W.i Hiatt Loe.) 2 2eMogs 1 spec.
f.; Onotom, Gilbert) Isilandss! July 2; 195s ni. Hy Banners Loe ga=i 6 spec.
g. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 13, 1951: i. H. Banner; Loe. a2: 16 spec.
h. Onotos,) Gilbert. Islands; July, 19, 1951; 2.) Hw Banner's ‘ Loe. fai: 6'spce. Cau. ) ive) Onotoa, Gilbert @slands: July) 11, 195l; ay Hy Banner: Loe. eek:
16 spec.
je Onotoa, Gilbert Mslandse" July 26,ri95is iy Hi Banners Locuei=er i spec.
k, Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 2, 1951; 4. H. Banner: Loe, 2+7s lspece
1. Onotoa, Gilbert. Islands; sugust 7, 19513 8..H. Banner; lees iB=3% 2 Spec.
me Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. EB. Strasburg; Loc. “—1-I1: 35 spec.
ne Lac Island, Lae toll, Marshall Islands; windward side under rocks; 1951-1952: F, S. MacNeils. loc, 877: 2 spec.
Zosimus aencus (L.)
a. wiluk «toll, Marshall Islands; native collectors; 1951-1952; He oy) MacNeil: Loc, 655: jl spec.
be. Leeward side of Hiluk Island, -iluk sitoll, Marshall Islands; near west end of island; 1951-1952: F, S. MacNeil; Loc. 841: 2 spec.
ce Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia 4toll, Tuamotu Islands; spotted rock crabs brought in from the outer reefs duly) 16.).19525) digE.) Mo) Momrisens Log. 1950312 sped.
Ly Ov
d. Homohono Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; spotted crab from Pood. An “ghee sea urchin zone of outer recf flats; July 21, 19525 Jef, He Morrisen; boc. 19633 1 spec.
Cs Meoraneee iene Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef fishing at nights; July 22, 1952; J. P, EH. Morrison; Loc, 1972, 1973: 3.. Specy
f, South end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia toll, Tuemotu Islands; ie reef fishing at night, oo from near edge of outer reef,
a little behind the Lithothamnion ridge; July 23, 1952; J. FP, HE,
ieee ior Loc. 1979-1983: 1h spec.
@. srno «atoll, Marshall Islands;. 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-503: 1 spec.
he 4rno -itoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-512: 1 spec, ;
Family Goncplacidae Subfamily Pseudorhombilinac Litocheira aranea Tesch a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc, D-8: 1 spec.
Family Pinnotheridac
Xanthasia nurigera White a. Ujac lagoon, Ujae 1-toll, Marshall Islands; from inside of the shell of a large live Tridacnas 1951, 1952; F, S,. WacNeil; Loc, 923: 2 females, 1 male,
Family Ocypcedidae
Macrophthalmus bosci (4udouin) ae Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 19, 1951; «. H. Banner; Loc, jh: 3 spec. be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. E. Strasburg; Loc. imleIIs 9 spec.
Ocypode ceratophthalma (Pallas) a. 4rno iitol1, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-680: i Spoc. be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 26, 1951; «, H. Banners; Loc. B 1-6: 2. Spec. ct. Onotoa, Gilbert, Islands; sand beach, ocean side; «ugust 1951; dig Hie Banners!) I) Spec. d. iluk Island, -ilvuk atoll, Harshall Islands; from inner rubble flat on seaward reef, at night; December 2h, 1951; F. S. MacNeil; Loew 8350, 1 spec. e. Taka «toll, Marshall Islendss; gray land crab; December 5-9, 19513 F, R. Fosberg: Loc. 58: 1 spe. f. Englamij Island, Ujae yee Marshall Islands; running on sandflet above high tide level; Mamchy Oy) 1952s f, hy Pospeng: Loe. 20s 1 spec.
= NG hes
ge, Bikar Island, Bikar Atoll, Marshall Islands; above high tide level on sand at night; Jugust oe WO pada alae Fosbere: Lock "Love: 2) specu)
h. Bikar Island, Bikar Atoll, Marshall Teenage on sand above high tide level; -iugust 8, 1962; Be R, Fosberg; Loc. 1083, 108): 2 spec.
i. North end of Oneroa Island, eonoas itoll, Tuamotu Islands; ghost crab dug out of sand beach (intertidal) in daytime, lagoon shore; Kogusty (4) 1952s) Sent.) a. Morrisons Loc. 2000s, 2 specs
Ocypode cordimana Desmarest
a. srno «itoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, EB 2-19: TO SpeC.
be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; sand beach, ocean side; -iugust 1951; Wenn Banner) spec.
ce Utirik Island, Utirik atoll, Marshall Islands; burrowing white land crab, dug out of purrets in the sand flat, west part of island; Doeomber 1, 1951; F. R. Fosbergs Loc. 19: Si/sueer ae
d. Jemo Island, Marshall Islands; land crab found gencrally over the island; December 18~—22, 1951; F, R, Fosberg; Loc. 7L? « 2spece
e. Ulika Island, #iluk «toll, Marshall Islands; gray land crab attracted to coconut meat in coconut plantation; December 29, 1951; F. RB. Fosbere; Loc, 792 1 spee.
f, slmeni Island, Bikar toll, Marshall Islands; on sand; «ugust 9, 1952: EF. R. Fosbergs loc, 1082: -1 spec.
Ocypode spec. (juw.) ae Bikar Island, Bikar Atoll, Marshall Islands; above high tide level on’ sand at nights Aueust 6, 1952; F. Ry. Fosbere; Loc) “1076: a estuhias be siluk otoll, Marshall Islands; islet N, of Baojen; on top of beach; December 30-31, 1951; EF. R. Fosberg; Loc. 5032 1 Juv.
Uca gaimerdi (H. Milne Edwards) Q ae West of Port Phaeton, on S. side of Taravao Isthnus, Tahiti, Society Islands; grassy and fern covered edge of swamp, black mud, water brackish or incomplete salt; June 21,1952; J. PF. Eh, Morrison; Loe. 6l6e), specs
Uca tetragonon (Herbst) ea ae &e Onctoa, Gilbert Islands; «iugust 10, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, BH6: 9 spec. be. South end of Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; fiddler crabs from holes in ee sand covered (eiined) pavement rock (intertidal), rock flats:on lagoon side; August 7, 1952; J. Ps Ee Morrisons Loc, 2081: 31 spec.
Family Grapsidae Subfamily Grapsinac
Goograpsus crinipes Dana a. irno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. EB 1-3: TSpeG. b. Bock Island, Ujae «toll, Marshall Islands; gray crab in hole in Pisonia trunks February 23, 1952: F.R. Fosberg; Loc. 7: 1 spec.
0 me
ce. Alle Island, Ujae 4toll, Marshall Islands; large gray ae under _ loose bark .of rotten nee logs; March 10, 1952; F. 8, Fosberg; tog, Ll? 1, spec.
de Bock Island, Ujae 4toll, Marsha see Ae gray crab in coconut trash; February 17-20, "1952; F, R. Fosberg: Loc.,.21:,. 1.specs
e. Utirik Island, Utirik Atoll, Boe Tolande. land crab; December 1,
Loge By Thy Seece ce: Loc. 50: 1 spec.
f. Jomo Island, Marshall Islands; gray land crab in burrows under guano qeyee in Pisonia grove; December 18-22, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loe. 72: 2 spec.
ge Islet N. of Baojen, siluk «toll, Marshall Islands; flat gray crab, well above high tide mark; Deconber OL, 1951; 1. he Hosneres Loc, 78:..-1. spec. |
h. Lae .itoll, Marshall Islands; gray crab; January 6-10, 1952; F. R. Postergs, doc. .685..1)Sbeeat |
i. Bikar Island, Bikar “toll, Marshall Islands; above high tide level on sand at night; 4ugust 6, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 1079:
1 spec.
je Bikar Island, Bikar toll, Marshall Islands; in small Messerschnidia tree; sugust 6, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 1080: 1 spec.
k. Takoke Island, Raroia atoll, Tuamotu Islands; July 22, 1952;
J, PF, es Morrison; Loc, 1966 1 juv.
1. North end of Oncroa Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; brown rock crab of lagoon shore, in contrast ae red painted one of hard outer reef rocks; August 8, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 2095:
2 SPCC.
Geograpsus grayi (H. Milne Edwards) a arno 4toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc. = 1-16:
LURG oye
Arno itoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-507:
2 spec.
ce wlle Island, Uiiac Atoll, Marshall Islands; land crab; March 10, 1952; F, R, Fosberg; terse 19: 2 spec.
ad. Bock Island, Uiae #toll, Marshall Islands; small gray crabs; February 17-20, 1952; F, Re Bosberg; Loc. 22: 2,spec.
e. Wotho Island, othe iat! Marshall Islands; purple land crab in coconut trash, judging by number of holes must be common all over island; February 1-15, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 29: 1 spec.
— Lojiron. Island, Taka «toll, ilarshall Islends; dark purple land crab under fonder in Pisonia grove; December 7, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 5: 1 spec.
ge Watwerok Island, Taka toll, Marshall Islands; land crab, gray brown, legs banded with Lighter gray, under rotting Lo hahe logs December 9, 1951; F, R. Fosberg; Loc 56: 1 jw.
he. Lae «toll, Marshall Tellus: land crabs in openings under stones; January as LOL 1952: FoR, Fosbere; Loc, 87: h spec.
i. Wake Island, Wake ‘Sombie under sticks and stones in wooded area; april 20, 1952; Bie Re Foshers; toes 91%... ly spec.
ji. Takoke iisaletael Re aroia stoll, Tuamotu Islands; true land crab from under rock oi floor of see foresusvduly 1, LOSS =. aig) diy le Morrison; Loc. 1912: 1 spec.
k. Mataira Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; small land crab at night; July 16, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 1915: 1 spec.
b
= BOs
Geograpsus lividus storni De Man : a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-399: 1 spec. yng
Grapsus longitarsis Dana
a, Arno sitoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; .R. W. Hiatts Loc. BE 1-l00:" 1 spec, ; eG
be. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July—August 1951; 4, H, Banner: lh spec.
c. Ngarumaca Island; Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; smaller species of shore rock crab, edge of water at low tide, outer reef flats opposite the village: ucust°*23, 19523 J.\P. EH. Morrison; Loc 2r7o: | 10! specs
c. North end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia “toll, Tuamotu Islands; inner recf flats near’ shore most ly. around larger rocks, active at night; September 2, 1952; J, Ps EB, Morrisons Hoc, 225:
2"SDEC™ (1 ovig.). a: See
Grapsus tenuicrustatus (Herbst)
de uunoe soul Varehalel Istonds ; 19505 Ry oW, Baatts (hoc. 2 Teves 1 spec. wanes
b. Onotoa, Gilbcrt Islands; seaward reef; July-August, 1951; 2H Banner: 3 spec.
Ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; windward recf; August 30, 1951; ee By Cilowds "3 Vepeic.
d, Bock Island, Ujae Atoll, Marsha “ Islands; in hole in gedeieanndame trunk 3 Poor 205 19825 Wook, Fosbere:s) Loc. 6%) 1 ispees
e. Jemo Island, Marshall Islends; on rocks above high tide level; December 18-22, 1951; '. R. Fosberg; Loc. 65:: 1 specs
f. Passage eal ore Kamome and Brije, Pokak atoll, Marshall Islands; above high tide on rocks ; July 23, 1952.07 2. Fosberg:; Loc. 1067: 1 spec. °
ge South Island, Pokak iitoll, Marshall Islands; abundant:on rocks just above water, secming to avoid going into water except when pursued; often seen above high tide level: July 26, 1952; F, BR. ee Hoc. 0oas 7h specs
he Passage between “Imeni and Jaliklik, Bikar 4toll, Marshall Islands; on Boneb rock just above high tides August 9, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; HOC we Oous: val Spec. :
is Ngarwnanoa Island, Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; young red ‘shore rock crab, cdge of water at fan tides outer recf flats opposite ‘the villages ugust' 23, 1952; J.P. EB. Morrisons loc, 2176: 3) SPCC;
hietopograpsus thukuher (Owon)
a. arno stoll, Marshall Islands} 1950; Rs We Hiatt; Loc, EH 2=)00: a
Pachygrapsus minutus 4, Milne Edwards ae Onova. Gilbert Islands; July 19, 2952s ul. H. Banner: Loe.) sieh: a Space :
eo enele peso De Man a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 12,2952; . He Banner; Loc. 2-1: 3 MM SPCC, anni
scahi5 UL, as
be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 19, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc. «eh: S spec. (qu.)
Ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 26, 1951; . H. Banner; Loc. «6: 1 spec.
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 13, 1951; 1..H. Banner; Loc, «i-7: ii sped,
e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; November 16, 1951; D. EL. Strasburg; dog telah: 3), spea,
f, North end of Oneroa Island, Raroia stoll, Tuamotu Islands; rocks and gravel just below low tide line on gravel flats along inncr reef near lagoon shore; august 6, 1952; J. P, E, Morrison; Loc. Z20fas )L, Spee
Pachygrapsus plicatus (H, Milne Hes)
a. urno toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-665: 1 spec.
be 4rno «toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc. E 1-666: 6 spec.
ce Ngarwmaoa Island, Raroia «toll, aa Islands; from outer reef flats; July 11, "1952; dg Ry E. Morrisons; Loc. 1920: 3 spec.
d. Oncrao Island, aoe atoll, Tuanotu stands: small rock crabs from low Sac line or just above (wet arca ) on large reef block about hO yds. out on rect pavement area from shore, collected at nights ahs 5, 19523 0. /P, Ee Morrison; Loe; 2055: 9 spec.
Pachygrapsus spec. ae Homohomo Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuanotu Islands; under rocks, ctc.,
near shore; July 21, 1952; J. P, E, Morrison; Loc. 1962: 1 spec. Subfamily Varuninac
FPscudograpsus albus Stimpson | ae Takoke Isla and, Raroia “toll, Tuanotu Islands; under stones about high tide lane. or little bellows July 22, 1952;-J. Pi BE. Morrisons Loc. 1968: 7 spec.
Subfamily Sesarminac
Gyclograpsus lonzipes Stimpson a. Takoke Island, taroia .i:toll, Tuamotu Ge tandee under eine about high tide line, or little Revoe July 22, 1952+ J. P. E, Morrison; Loc. 1968: h spec. b. Ohava Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; under rocks, ectc., on lagoon side of channcl or incomplete channel; July 27, 1952; dig iw, fe Morpisons Loc, 19972. 3 spec.
Cyclograpsus parvulus De Man Ge Lrno toll, ‘arshall Ts Vanda 1950s RoW. HES 5 spec. b. Ohava Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; under rocks, etc., on lagoon side of channel or incomplete oe July 27, 1952: HP es Morrison; Loc. 1997: 5 spec.
at OM.
a
Metascsarma aubryi “, Milne Edwards ji a. urno Golds 19503 IRQs MINAS Inlabealt cade Hoe, f 1265ae" 32 spec. be arno toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R..W. Hiatt; Loc. BE 1-18: 1 spec. es Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt: loc, E leh: 2 SCC. d. srno atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W, Hiatt 2 spec. Bock Island, Ujae Atoll, Marshall tiemeuele from wN=Oh ams ¢ heneean rubble surface in interstices between coconut trash, near lagoon; February 20, 1952; F. Ro Posberg; Loc. 950: * Lispecs
@) °
Metasesarma rousseauxi H. Milne Edwards
a, Matuis Beach, NV. Saipan, Marianas Islands; December 19, 19h8; gaelay Ciena: 2 Spec.
be “uno Atoll, Marshall Islands: 1950; R. Ws Hiatts Loc, HE dakide.
1 spec.
Ce “irno Atoll. Marshall )Uslandss) (19503. Ry (We Hiatt: Loe, h leer. 3 spec.
d. Lato Island, Likiep toll, Marshall Islands; small gray land crabs in beach drift. well ana high tide mark; December 12-15, 1951;
Be Re, Rosberg: -locsjoos ose spec.
e. Lojjaiong island, Kwajalein ..toll, Marshall Islands; in interstices in cut bank of small pebbles above high tide level; January 15, 1952° Fo hs Fosbergs oe, 66): 18 ‘spec.
f. Lojjairok Island, Kwajalein «toll, Marshall Islands; from deeayed spot in trunk a ossersclmicis argcntea tree about 2 m from ground; January 15, 1952;.¥.R. Fosberg; Loc. 682: 1 SPCC.
Ze Topaturea, E, side Canes. ore of Taravao Isthmus, Tahiti, Socicty Islands; under cobbles; June 21, 1952: J. P, HE, Morrisons Loe, -LOISisn Hi Spee.
Sesarma rotundatum Hess a, 4rno Atell, Marshall Islands; 1950; R.. VW. Hiatt; Loc. B 1-li3: 1 spec. b. Arno “toll, Me oF i Nieioloy Vi seonl il, 1 spec. J, Ane Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950;,R, W, Hiatt: .3-spee. 0 one ° a
lands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loe. \E 2-182. 2 specs Lands; 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc, B 2-1
e, Ujae Island, Ujae Atoll, flarshall Islands; e-gray crab from hole, im live, coconut trunk; March 13, 19525 ¥ Ie Specs
Subfamily Plagusinae ,
Percnon ébbreviatum (Dana) ey a. South end of Ngarumaca Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; from eae reef fishing at night, mostly from near edge of. outer reef, 1 little behind the Lithotharmion ridges; July 23, 19525 J. Pots Nomeee Loc. 1979-1983: 1 spec.
Perenon planissimm (Herbst)
a, 4rno stoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W, Hiatt; Loc. E 1-10: Ll spec.
- 33 -
be Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-2:
6 spece
ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 20, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, A-11: lh spec...
d,s Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 2, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, A-8-9: 1 spec.
Plagusia speciosa Dana
ae West of Ailuk Island, Ailuk Atoll, Marshall Islands; seaward side of leeward reef; 1951-1952; F. S. MacNeil; Loc. 847: 1 spec.
b. South end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from outer reef fishing at night, mostly near edge of outer reef, a little behind the Lithothamnion ridges July 23, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 1979-1983: 5 spec.
ce Tenuku Haupapatea Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from algae zone just behind outer reef edge (boring urchin zone), outer reef flats; September 5, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 2269: 1 spec.
Family Gecarcinidae
Cardisoma carnifex (Herbst)
a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; land crab; July-August, 1951; A. H. Banner: 1 spece
b. Tehakapikipiki Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; Pemphis land erabs (Papaka Tupa) from land at night; July 28, 1952; J. P. E, Morrison; Loc, 2010: 6 spec,
ce North end Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; small true land crab collected at night; August 7, 1952; J. P. BE. Morrison; Loc. 2080: 1 spec.
d. North end of Oneroa Island, “aroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; Pemphis erabs (Papaka Tupa) from camp area near lagoon; August 8, 1952; J. P, E. Morrison: Loc. 209: 2 spec.
e. Oteteu Island Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; Femphis land crabs (Papaka Tupa), burrows all over lower ground under Pemphis; fugust 21, 1952; J. P. H. Morrison: Loc. 2152: 2 spec.
Cardisoma rotumdum (Quoy & Geimard)
a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-123: 1 spec.
be Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-51h: 1 specs
ce Bock Island, Ujae Atoll, Marshall Islands; purple land crab from coconut trash in holes in rubble in mixed forest and edge of plantation; February 17-20, 1952; F. 2. Fosberg; Loc. 23: 2 spec.
Epigrapsus politus Heller a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W, Hiatt; Loc. BE 1-665: 5 spec. | be Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-187: 2 spec.
iB lees
ce. Arno. Atoll, Marshall, Islands; 1950;.R. W. Hiatt; Loc, EB 2=o0n: 3 spec. \
d. Tepaturea, E, side Gvindward shore) of Taravao Isthmus, Tahiti, Society Islands; under cobbles; Jume 21, 1952; J. P. HE. Morrison; Lowes LEMS 93: specs,
Gecarcoidea lal dalandei H, Miine’ Edwards a. arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-h23: ISpees: eg ae Bock Island, Ujae Atoll, Marshall Islands; purple land crab in coconut trash.in holes in rubble in-mixed forest and edge of plentation; February 17-20, 1952; F. 8. Fosberg; Loc. 23: 1 spec.
Family Hapnlocarcinidae
Hapalocarcinus marsupialis Stimpson 2. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; South portion of northern main island, About, GOO? fb. Oi, fron. the offshore end of Government Ses Gea jetty and 1200 ft. directly offshore from the lagoon end of the Pacific Science Board camp strip; July 25, 1951: P. EB. Cloud; Loe. GOC=22: 1 ovie. female, in coral.
II, «nomura a gies IDEA Family .ilbuncidac
Albunea clicti Benedict ae arno sitoll, Marshall Isdandss.1950;( RV. Hiatts Locs/E. 2-50. 1 spec. i
Family Hippidae
Hippa adactyla Fabricius Se! a, .t mouth of shonu river, about 14 km. 4, of Papeete, Tahiti, Society Is slands; mole crabs from black volcanic sand, pene Soptenbor 15, .1952; J, P,.E. Morrison; Loc. 200)11 1 spec.
Hippa ovalis (i, Milne Edwards) a AM Gmouch woL hon river. about diame. Baiof Rapecte, Dahici e ‘) 3) s) Society Islands; mole crabs from black volcanic sand, intertidal; fi > 9 Aes A ’ 3 September 15, 1952: J. P. H. Morrisons Loc. 229h:. 2 spec,
Hippa pacifica (Dana) a. drno uitoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; Ro W. Hiatt: Loc, «hi 2415 ae 5 spec. be Ine lagoon, «rno «toll, Marshail Islands: in sand on beach at high tide; June=-ugust 1950; J. H. Wells; Loc, 32: h Spete
J oe
P..GURIDDA
Family Coenobitidae
Birgus latro (L.)
Qe
b. Ce
fiymo atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-19: iospe cs
Onotoe, Gilbert Islands; July-August 1951;:.:. H. Banner: 1 spec.
Rua Island, Uiae «itoll, Marshall Islancs; in burrow under 2 inches of peat’ in Pisonia forest; February 23, 1952; F. &. Fosberg;
Hocw i? Li spee) (4 {
Wotho Island, wotho Atoll, Marshall Islands; in coconut trash; February 15, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 26: 1 spec.
Enellap Island, Ujelang «itoll, Marshall Islands; burrowing in ' boulder debris; natives call it "baru" and insist that it climbs coconut trees, they say that it is common on Enellap and Kalo Islands; February h, 1952; F, R. Fosberg; loc. 36: 1 spec.
Mejurwon Island, Wotho “toll, Marshall Islands; abundant; March 22, 1952: F. Rk. Fosberg; Loc. Lhl8: 1 spec.
Kahongi Island, Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; coconut crab from Pandanus fruit at nicht (rare at Raroia because always eaten by natives); august 12, 1952; 3. °P..E. Morrison;loc. 2113: 1.spec.
Coenobita brevinanus Dana
ae
be
arno toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-17: h spee.
srno wtoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. HE 1-19: BSE Ga:
wrno utoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. Vv. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-h26: 3 spec.
“urno «toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatts Loc. E 1-28: 2 spec.
Arno atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1+l38: 3 spec. " ;
wirmo utoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. EB 1-589: h spec.
4rno atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. iv, Hiatt; Loc, E 1-658: L Spec.
arno atoll, Marshall. Islands; 1950; R. li, Hiatt; Loc, E 1-660: 1 spec.
arno wtoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; RB, W. Hiatt; Loc. EB 2-h: specs
Jirno gtoll,.’Marshall’ Islands) 1950; R..W.; Hiatt; Loc, E 2-150: 2 spec.
armno Atoll, Marshall Islends; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, EB 2-ho3: i spec.
feno itoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-513: 2 SPCC.
Bock Island, Ujae sitoll, Marshall Islands; from coconut trash; February 20, 1952; F. R..Fosbergs Loc,,10: 8 spec.
slle Island, Ujae toll, ‘Marshall Islands; around freshly cut coconuts’ and in and around rotten coconut log in daytime; Hareh 10; MOSA si Fy Ry Posbereswhocy Woe > 3 7 av.
~ 36;
o~ Kalo Island, Uiclang iitoll, Marshall Islands; on ground; February LOE. ho he \Posberesiiiocy wile villi spec.
p. Mataira Island, Raroia -itoll, Tuamotu Islands; purple clawed land hermit crabs fceding at nipht on opened ereen coconuts (juice); Jui 1G.) O52 sie (Pi telMorrisons ‘Loe! 190-195: 10 Spec.
q. Oneroe Island, Raroia «toll, eee a Ts] Lands 3 purple land hernit crabs (uncommon); Aucust 7, O52 2 (Ji Phe Momursons,.loe. i20Kos 2 Spec.
Coenobita carnescens Dans
ai Uselane Tsland, Ujelang Atoll, Marshall Islands; ‘on ground; ‘February
Gan. 1952: F. R, Fosbere; hee. i382 2 spec. (gums
Coenobita perlatus H, Milne Edwards
a
a. drno itoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; loc.’ EH 2217m%
DY SPCC. b. “rno «toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-27: 3 Spec. ; ) Ge, alrno «toll, Marshall! tsiands;)1950;)R..W. Hiatt; Loe. BE ies92: (Se Gis Ve ad. Arno! Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; 2. W.. Wiatts Loc. BH 2ahe 3 spec. '@s “irno Atoll, Marshall Islands;.1950;'R. W..Hiatt; Loc.!E 2-17 A /SPCEs f,. Arno stoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R..W. Hiatt; Loc. Wi2—150s i Specs aba eb ge arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; 8. W. Hiatt; Loc, EH 2-398: i spec. : he sirno «toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, © 2-03: 2° Spec.
i, Onotoa, Gilbert: Islands: -ucust 1951; .. H, Banner: 1. 'spee. alle notes. Gilbert Islands;: Pacific Scicnce Board camp arca; July 30,
TOR Me Pe Ma Cliouds 96) Spec .
k. Lae Island, Lac Atoll, Marshall Islands; legoon side, beach: 1951-
1952: HL S. ‘MacNeil: Loc, 866: 12 spec, (juve).
1. Torrutj’ Island, Kwajelein toll, Marshall Islands; 1951-1952: F, S, MacNeil; Loc. 900: 66 spec.
m. Wotho’ «toll, Marshall Islands; 1951-1952; F. S. MacNeils. Loc. 913: 2 Spec,
ne Rua Island, Ujae stold, Marshall Islands; large red hermit crabs under rotting logs; February 23). 1952's my Fosbergs. Loc, 2: 3 ‘spec, .
o. Rua island, Ujae stoll, Marshall Islands; under rotting: coconut logss; February 23, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; “ie! Ba Tonia
p. Bock Island, Ujae «toll, Marshall Islands; from coconut trashs February 20, 1952; I. i.) Posbergs’ Hoe. 92. 1 spec.
q. Alle Islend, Uiae «toll, Marshall Islands; around freshly cut
coconuts and in and around rotten coconut log in daytime; March 10,
TOSP. be Re Mosbergs, Lock 12-152) 17h Guys. Ye| Tela e Isl land, Ujae neoaatl Marshall islands; in and around coconut
log in daytime; colors vary from scarlet to brick red to brownish
reds’ Warch 10,' 1952s Fens Fosberg: Loe. 172.) 6 spec. s. Kabben Island, Gane itoll, Marshall Islands; March 20, 19523 FF, Rev Posberss ‘Loeg 25% 1 juve
- 37 =
t. Wotho Island, Wotho .itoll, Marshall Islands; journeying toward sea, ready to lay eggs; February ly-15, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loe. 27: 1 ovig. female. ue Wotho Island, Wotho “toll, Marshall Islands; attracted to open nuts near camp; February 1-15, 19523 F, R. Fosberg; Loc. 32: LD! UV. ve Jerko Island, Ujielang “toll, Marshall Islands; climbing in Scaevola bush, 2°m.;.February 4; 1952;,F. R..Fosberg; Loc. 2:. 1.spec. we. Utirik Island, Utirik 4toll, Marshall Islands; eating meat from split young cating nuts; Decomber 1, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 7: 5 spec. x. Utirik Island, Utirik Atoll, Marshall Islands; eating meat from split young nuts; December 1, 1952; F. Rk. Fosberg; Loc. 8: T2> Vs y. Taka Island, Take «toll, Marshall Islands;. between stilt roots of Pandanus; December 5, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 51: h spec. Ze Taka Island, Taka «toll, Marshall Islands; between stilt roots of Pandanus tree; December 5, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 59: 2 spec. (soni-adult). aa, Lato Island, Likiep atoll, Marshall Islands; in beach drift, well poe high tide mark; December 12-15, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 62: juv. bbe Jemo Island, Marshall Islands; at top of beach; December 18-22, 1951; F. R. Fosbergs Loc. 662 5 ju. ec. Jomo Island, Marshall Islands; at top of beach; December 18-22, ae5i: F, HR, Foshbergs Loc. 67: dia dd. Baojien Island, +:iluk .:toll, Marshall Islands; above high tide on sand; December 30, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 77: 22 juv.
eee Enobuoj Island, Kwajalein 4toll, Marshall Islands; around a sack of rotting copra thrown up on the beach; January 19, 1952; F, R. Fosberg; Loc. 82: h jw.
ff. Enobuoj Island, Kwajalein «toll, Marshall Islands; around a sack
of rotting copra thrown up on the beach; January 19, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc, 83:. 2 spec. gg. Lac Island, Lae .itoll, Marshall Islands; attracted to open coconuts at night; January 6-10, 1952; F. R. Fosbergs; Loc. 89: 2 spec. hh. Islet N. of Baojen, siluvk -.toll; Marshall Islands; from beating . Pemphis; December 31, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 53: 1 spec. ii. Ailuk Island, Ailuk «toll, Marshall Islands; from inner rubble flat on seaward recf, at night; December 2h, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 835: 2 spec, (semi-adult). dje Sibylla Island, Pokak jtoll, Marshall Islands; July 20-26, 1952; very common, generally nocturnal, hiding under edges of large boulders during the day, going both lagoon and seaward beaches beginning shortly before suncovm, inhabiting principally Turbo lajonkairi shells; July 20-26, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 1065: 5 spece kk. South Island, Pokak .itoll, Mershall Islands; in cavities and crevices in great boulders on land well above high tide levcl; July 26, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 1069: 10 spec. li. Sibylla Island, Pokak toll, tlarshall Islands; on land; July 27, 1952; F. R,. Fosberg; Loc. 1070: 5 spec.
mul BB wes
mm. Pokak Island, Pokak .itoll, Marshall Islands; beach above high tide; July 26, 1952. Ey Ry Fosberg3 loe, LOW: 10 Spec.
nn. Tiny Island between Sibylla and Pokak, Fokak «toll; in cavities and crevices in great boulders above high tides July 26, 1952;
BF, Re Fosberg: Loc, 1072: 17 spec.
oo. Bikar Island, Bikar .itoll, Marshall Islands; 3 without shells taken on beach at about sunset when they were visiting the ocean; one with shell taken after dark eating baby turtle (no. 1073); fugust 6, 1952: F. oR. Fosberg; Loc, 107: spec.
pp. Bikar Island, Bikar Atoll, Marshall Islands: climbing in Messerschmidia tree;. sugust. 7, 1952; F. R. Fosberg: Loc. 1086: 2 spec.
qq. Bikar Island, Bikar ‘toll, Marshall Islands; under turtle bones and crawling about nearby on sand, well above high tide level outside forest; sugust 7, 1952; #, R. Fosberg; Loc, 1087-1089: 15 spec.
rr. Ngarvmaoa Island, Raroia toll, Tyemotu Isiands; from middle to inner zone of outer reef flote opposite a fanee 3; July 6, 19523 Ja bs H. Morrisons Moc. soos it Spec
ss. lakoke Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; from leaves, etc. ficor of; forese; July lay, 1952; J. FP, &. Morrisons’ Loee mg iG, Oddie 36° spec. f
tt. Tahuna riri Island, Raroia “toll, Tuamotu Islands 5 lagoon beach,
sand; Tercbra sig lS July Dis 1952; J, P. E.-Morrisons oes 200):
2 ce uue Oneroa Island, Raroia +toll, Tuamotu Islands; from ee house areca, small, selected for shells; «ugust 2, 1902. Je PoE
Morrasons Loc. 202731 Oo spec.
vv. Oneroa Island, Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; vane red hernit - crabs (common); sugust 7, 1952; J, P. =, Morrison; Loc, 2079:
l, spee.
ww, Mataira Island, Raroia jtoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer recf flats; ely 6 ROS 2 oid some ie Morrisons Loe 19863" dspee,
xx, North Sale| OnE Tokers Island, #aroia toll, Tuanotu Islands; ‘pavement and sandy patches Baneen coral re algae ) patches in the channel from near lagoon to middle; «ugust 8, 195 Bata ree gales Morrison; Loe, 2088: »1 spec. :
yy. North end Oneroa Island, Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef and drift; “August 6, 1952; J.P... Morrisons) boc, 20933 Ispoce
2Z. Okaea Isla mal, Raroia «toll, me amotu Islands; from rock flat just
below or at 1@) high tice line on wide rock flat’ on oceanic sides nueUsty 22, 952s deb.) &, Morrisons hoe 2G | svspees
Aaais Southeast Sealey of Opakea Island, Raroia s:toll, Tuamotu Islands; under rocks on sandy bottom below low tide line, lagoon shore} furusG 20, 1952.0. FP. w, Morrisons Locg 219h2 171 "spec.
bbb. Southwest corner of Opakea Island, Raroia »toll, Tuamotu Islands; channel and lagoon shores “ugust 27, 1952; J. P. Es Morrison; Noes 2190s) 1 -spelc,
ecc. North of Opakea Island, Raroia itoll, Tuamotu Islands: outer reef pavement in channel “ber to the nomen of the island; August 27, HO52¢.02 Eb. Morrison: Loc. 22058 | ispec.
Coenobita rugosus H, Milne Edwards
a. orno atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; 8. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-171: 16 spec.
b. «rno Ltoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-658: 1 specs
ce. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. Wi, Hiatt; Loc, E 1-660: 12 spec.
ad. arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-): 16 spec.
e. sro «toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W, Hiatt; Loc. E 2-6:
7 spec.
f. 4rno étoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-12): 1 spec.
€. orno «toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. “, Hiatt; Loe, E 2-03: 3 spec.
he Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; Pacific Science Board camp areas July 30, 1951; P, E. Cloud: §3 spec.
i. Torruti Island, Kwajalein stoll, Marshall Islands; 1951-1952;
Fo. MacNeil; Loc, 9002. 3 ju.
je Lato Island, Likiep toll, Marshall Islands; in beach drift well above high tide marks; December 12-15, 1951; F. 2. Fosberg; Loc, 2: 1 juv.
k. Rua Island, Ujae «toll, Marshall Islands; under rotting coconut logs; February 23, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 3: h ‘juv.
1. «lle Island, Ujae atoll, Marshall Islands; around freshly cut coconuts and in and around rotten coccnut log in dcaytimc;
March 10, 1952; Fah, Fosberes; Loc, 12-15: 97 specs me Wotho Island, Wotho «toll, :iarshall Islands; small hermit.crab, claws not striped, darker color, large claw purples; attracted to - open nuts near camp; February 1), 15, 1952; F, R. Fosbcerg; Loc. 31: 9 ju. n. Ujelang Islet, Ujclang ;.itoll, Marshall Islands; on ground; Kepruary 6,7, 1952; Fa ik, ‘Fosbergs Loc, l3:. 3juvs
0. Uiiclang Island, Ujeclang +:toll, Marshall Islands; on ground; February 6, 7, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. hh:. 2 juv.
Pe Jeno Island, Marshall Islands; at top of beach; December 18-22, 1951; F, R, Fosberg; Loc. 68: 2 juv.
q. Kwajalein Island, Kwajalein «toll, Marshall Islands; above beach, around backdeor of officer's club; March-13, 1952; F, R, Fosberg; Loe. 80: 6 ju.
r. Enobuoj Island, Kwajalein «toll, Marshall Islands; around a sac of rotting copra thrown up cn the beach; January 19, 1952; F. Fosbere; Loc, 61: 1 ju.
s. lac Island, lace J.toll, Marshall Islands; on trail in front of camp at night, large specinen in Vasum shell, small specimen in Cerithium shell; Jenuary 6-10, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 90:
2 spec.
t. Lojjaiong Island, Kwajalein toll, Marshall Islands; in interstices in cut bank of small pebhles above hich tide levels; January 15, 19525: 8 « Re Fosberg; Loc. 665% 2.juv.
k R
ee Ie ee
ue Bikar Island, Biker Atoll, Marshall Islands; 5 ft.:up a caconut tree trunk; august 6, 1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 1075:: 1 spec.
ve Bikar Island, Bikar u:toll, Marshall Islands; above high tide level on sand at night;..ugust 6,:1952; F. R. Fosberg; Loc. 1077: 1 spec.
we Mataira Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; purple clawed land hermit crabs feeding at night on opened green coconuts (juice); July 16, 1952; J. P. &. Morrison; Loe. 1910: lL spec.! (among specimens of C,. brevinanus).
Coenobita spinosus H, Milne Idwards i ‘ a, Arno «toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; oe; B I=heo:
1 spec.
be “rno.Ztoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt;.Locg H I=nlo: i spec,
Ce arno “toll, Marshall Islands; 19503 R, W, Hiatt: shoes & 1-661: “Tl spec.
d. Bock Island, Ujae «toll, Marshall Islands; in ceconut ona, from Fiscnia forest; February 20, 1952; F. .R. Fosberg; loe,6: ci Spec. . Wotho island, Wotho Atoll, He arshall micnes. in Gocnte trash ; Fobruc oy hy eg O52 B, R. Fosbergs sLoes 302 12 \speed
Family Paguridac Subfanily Dardaninae :
4niculus aniculus (Horbst) a. drno Atoll, Marshall “Islands; 1950; RoW. Hiatt; oes EH 2-hhse 3 spec. . b. Arno toli, Mar rshall Islends; 1950 8. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-98: Tuseec. ce NadoIstand, ‘Likiep, atoll, Marshall Tetendee in| Durbomshemiiss bi shob hem ion ridce, cast side of island; December 1h, 1951; Posts a eNeatks Locs 82s. 2. spec. farunaoa Island, #aroia utoll, Tuamotu Islands; inshore eo arca
de Ne 20 4 ’
of outer reef; Ns end of island;:July 9,.1952:; Js PR. Be Morrason: Loeedg0o: «2 spec.
6. Homohomo Estland, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reek wlats; July 21, 1952: davis HE. Morrisons Loe, 1956s" i specs
f. Tahunariri Island, Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; windward oute rect iedges:ouly 27, 1952. J. Pon) Morrisons Loc wy 1990" Wi cmec,
e, Oncroa nes Raroia atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer: reef odge :
ee Uy 1902; J, Ps EY Morrisons Loc. 2039 L.Sspecsn
).
elegans (H. Milne Edwards : a. Onotoa By Gi ck ridge trough, about 600 ft.- offshore C
0
pee t Islands; ba
c Science Board Camp, at the outer margin of the wind- ward nay, Paso seen from the algal ridce and surge channels. Thais part of the reef never dries even at low tide and gencrally has’ at least a foot or two of water above ibs sugust-2,. 29515 Pe Ss Cihoudls Toe GO0C=322 “hi sped.) (identification nbs bepeadan,
b. Ngarumaoa Island,.Raroia 4itoll, Tuanotu Islands; median section er Zone.of cuter reef, opposite village: July 5, 19525. 30 ie Morrison; Loc. 1836: 2 spec.
rp Ela
Gar he
Ce
o &
Tle
Ne
Qe
Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia .itoll, Tuamotu Islands; near edge of
e; duly-6,:-1952; J. P. E, Morrison; Ice, 1852: 2 spee. in Turbo argyrostonus.
Nearmmaoa Island, Raroia -itoll, Tuamotu Islands; middle to inner zone of outer reef flats opposite village; July 6, 1952; J. FP. E. Morrisons; Loc, 1863, 1864: 5 spec. :
Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia .itoll, Tuamotu Islends; cuter reef flats; July 8, 1952; J. P. E. Morrisons Loc. 1885, 1886: 2 spec.
North enc of Ngarwmaca Island, Raroia toll, Tuamotu ee outer reef alone Lithothamion midges Juby 9, T9625). ie aks
outer reef, opposite villag
Morrison; Loc. 1893: 3 spc
Ce
» Northeast side of Tepukamaruia Island, Tal:ume «itoll, Tuamotu Islands;
oceanic recf; Septomber 8, 1952; J. P, EB, Morrison; boc. 22753
i spec.
Tepukemaruia Island, Takume «toll, Tuamotu Islands; occanic recf
flats; Septomber 8 1952; J.
Pak)
Morrisen; Loc, 2276: 1 spec.
Hcnohomo Island, Raroia ‘toll, Tuanotu Islands; outer reef flats; July 21, 1952; J. P. EB. Morrisons; Loc, 1956: h spec.
Homohomo Island, Raroia stoll, Tuam July 21, 1952; J. P. BE. Morrison: Loc, 1958: 1 spec.
South end of Nearmaca {sland, | Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; shore line, rock and gravel at low tide line or bolovr, at night; Seca Zale
1952; he Pye. Morrisons he
ce 1976:
otu Islands; outer reef flets;
2 spec.
Onerca Island, Raroia atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef pavement
area or zone near shore at Morrison; Loc. 200: 3 spe
night; Ce
wurust Wy, L523 Uw Pe B
Oncroa Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands; outer recf flats; aneust (5, 1952; J.P. EB, Morrison; Loc, 208: 1 spec.
Tepatahiti Island, Raroia 4toll, Tuamotu Islands; outer rcef flats, here the pavement and pool zone extends almost from the shore to the outer reef edge,.the boring urchin zcnc, however, is distinct, as is the very narrow Lithothamnion ridge; -ugust 26, 1952;
Meuse sis (Morrisons Loe. 218
OM 24s
pec.
Neavarivari Island, Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef gAgees mMcush 26, 1952s id, Peoae Mernisons oc A221: ‘2 spec. South ond of Nearumaoa Island, Raroia «toll, Tuamotu Islands;
pool and pavement zone near shore; Beoneaner Be LO5 Os hy te obi
Morrisons Loc, 2253: 1 spe
Ce
Tenuku Haupapatca Island, Raroia «toll, Tuemotu Islands; algac zone just on outer recf cdge, outer reef flats; September 5,
DOeay vob By Morrison; ilo
Cc. 2269:
Calcinus gaimardi (H, Milne Edwards)
Qe
srne «toll, Marshall Islands;
1 spec.
1950;
1 spec.
Re Seaetes Loc, Lvl 2oy:
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6 and 13, 199; P. E.:
Clouds; Loc. D-5: 2 spec.
¢. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; back ridze.trough, about 600 ft. offshore from Pacific Science Board camp, at the outer margin of the wind- ward reef, just inshore from the algal ridge and surge channels,
This part of the reef never drics even at low tide and gencrelly
has at loast a foot or two of water above it; sucgust:1, +1951;
P, £, Clouds; Loc, GOC-32:
3 spec,
- 2 -
Calcinus la evimanus Randall a. drno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. ¥. Hiatt; loc. E 1-51: 7 spec. b. 4rno Atoll, Marshall Islonds 5 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. B 1-592: 2 spec. ec. Arno Atoll) Marshall Islands; 1950; R. Wi. Hiatt; Loc? 2-30h: 12 spec. d. 49no Atoll, Marshall stands :)1950; Re Vy dwatts loc, 2 2aaeb 1 spec, (identification not certain). e, Arno aboll, Marshall. Islands; 1950; °R..\/. Hiatts: Loc.) EH) 2=5ams
2. SDC Cs
f. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 12, 1951; . H. Banners) Loes Aas L spec.
g. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands: July 135, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loes woe LO spec.
h. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July-12, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. “=k: SU SPECK Me
i. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 25, 1951; A, H. Banner’; Loe.) u=5% 2 spec.
j. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; Lusust 9, 19513. 4. BH. Banner; Loe. B=3% AiSwee. : :
k. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; sugust 8, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc, Bel: h spec.
. 1. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July-august, 1951; A.)H. Banners 10 a me Ailok Island, iiluk Atoll, Marshall Islands; seaward reefs 1951
1952: FF, S, ila acNoil; Loc. 857: 3-spec.
n. Bock island, ae boll, Marshall Islands; 19523 °F. Si, MacNeal LOC .y, 2 lke epee:
o, Ngarmaoa Island, Raroia “toll, Tuamotis Islands; seaward side opposite the Snes July: 15, 195260, PP. ay) Morrison; hoewmlsee: ds Spec.
De Sonee edge of Motufano Island, .Rarcia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; residual pools at low tide in .incomplcte Geennen near moe incompletely connected to lazoon waters; sugust 8, 1952; J. FP. H, Mormasons| Loc, 20008, Spec... |
q. Northeast side of Tepukanaruia Island, Takume ‘toll, Tuamotu Islands; oceanic reef; September 8, 1952; J. .P. E. Morrison; Loc, 2275%
1 spec.
r. Northeast side of Tepukenaruia Islend, Takune atoll, Tuanotu Islands; oceanic beach; Scptember 8, 1952; J. P. EH. Morrison; , LOC a 22ilsin > . SPEC.
Mataira Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef flats;. July 165 1952s) J. Pi.) Ws Morrisons Loc, 19M 2 spec,
t. South end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; shore line, rock and gravel at low tide ine or Below, at night; July 23,: 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 1976: 1 spec.
ue North end of Oneroa Island, Karoia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; on and under rocks at and below low tide line, gravel flats on inner reef, lagoon. shores. August 7; 19523 J.P. EB. Morrison; Loc. 20/6:
1 spec.
ve Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; pavement pool habitat, outer reef near shore opposite village; August 23,
NOS2 se, Fe Me Mornasons: Loch, 2076 230 (spec.
16)
ial
w. Puka Puka Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; under rocks and on pavement of pool zone of outer reef flats; August 28, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 2208: 5 spec.
x. Ngavarivari Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef flat; August 26, 1952; J, P, E, Morrison; Loc. 2218:. 3 spec.
y. North end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from under larger rocks mostly on inner (shore) half of inner reef flats; September 2, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 22h3:
2 spec. ;
Caleinus latens (Randall) hs a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc. E 1-108:
ah ee De Bano aitoul, Marshall Islands; 1950; KR. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-153: } on 1 ee ilarshall Islands; 1950; R. W,. Hiatt; Loc. BE 1-297: d. ee ae, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. ¥. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-30h: Ce ei. Marshall Islands; 1950; kK. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-391: Fin eee Marshall Islands; 1950; 2. W, Hiatt; Loc, E 1-705: Ze Ferret Islands; August 8, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. Bel: hie Onotee, Cather’ Islands; August 15, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. B-8: Spec.
(Arno identifications not entirely certain)
i. North end of Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef and drift; August 8, 1952; J, P, E. Morrison; Loc. 2093:
1 spec.
3. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; pavement pool habitat nearby outer reef near shore opposite village; August 23, 19523, J Pe EB. Morrisons Locs 21782: 1 specs
k. North end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from under larger rocks mostly on inner (shore) half of inner reef flats; September 2, 1952; J. P. E, Morrison; Loc. 223: 23 spec.
Calcinus seurati Forest ae Bock Island, Ujjae Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1952; F. S. MacNeil; Loc. 921: 2 spec.
b. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; median section or zone of outer reef flats a little behind outer reef edge opposite Village; July 5, 1952; J. P, E. Morrison; loc. 1836: 1 spec.
ce Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef flat; July 8, 1952; J. P. E..Morrison; Loc. 1885: 1 spec.
d. Lagoon side of Otikaheru Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; near shore of brackish enclosed lagoon, on the lagoon side of usdands duly 29, 19525 J. P, Es Mérrison; Loc. 2015: lh wspees
e. South edge of Motufano Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; residual pools at low tide in incomplete channel near lagoon, incompletely connected to lagoon water; August 8, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 2086: 25 spec.
Oe ira
“f, Northeast side of Tepukamaruia Island, Takume Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; oceanic reef; September 8, 1952; JenPLonS Morrisons Loe, 22752) lisvec. ge. Northeast side of Tepukamaruia Island; Takume Atoll, Tuamotu Island: ,jarce:"tadelm@pooam (om reduced salt?) far pack next to shore (150 yds.) line of beach rock and/or sand; September 8, 19522 JS 0ParES Morrisonsvide. 422782 ssllispee. a: lay Ngarumaca Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; pavement pool habitat nearby outer reef near shore opposite village; a As) MOS Oe diy oun. Morrisons Lows 278s. spec. i. Opakea Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef pavement habitat in channel. just to "the North of the island; August 27, 1Ob 2s J, tb. Morrisons: Loc, 22053 | 1 speci. die Eulea Pula Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; under rocks and on pavement of Bobi zone of ates reef flats; August 26, 1952 side, Pe Bi Morrison; Loc. 2208: 5 specs k. Ngavarivari Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef flat; August 26, 1952; J. P, E, Morrison; Loc. 2218: 1 spec.
Calcinus spicatus Forest ?
ae Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 9200 ft. S. 72° W. from offshore end of Government Station jetty (on S. portion of northern main island) just S. of main passage out of lagoon (Rawa ni Karoro) where coral shoals known as Aon te ra Bata begin to deepens collected in area where patch reefs rise above the limesand bottom at 16 ft; depths; July 29, 1951; P..E. Clouds ‘Locs 1G0C=27: 1 spec.
Calcinus spec. ae ge seth a
a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. ", Hiatt; Loc. E 2-516: 3 spec. 1 Bie k
b. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 2h, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. A-XVI: ‘1 spec.
c. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; back ridge trough, about 600 ft. offshore from Pacific Science Board camp, at outer margin of windward réef, just inshore from the algal ridge and surge channels.
This part of the reef never dries even at low tide and generally has at least a foot or two of water above it; August 1, 1951; Pe a, Cloud; boc, GOC-32:' 1 spec.
Diogenes spec. a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; in coral; August 9, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. Be5: 1 spec.
Clibanarius corallinus (H. Milne Edwards) a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; 2. W, Hiatt; Loc, E 1-51:
Lospec. be Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; RK. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-108: 6 spec. : es Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; 8. W. Hiatt: Loc, EB 1-153% ' 1 spec. ad. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-592: 16 spec.
e. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-h:
1 spec. - f. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-12): Zz SPeCe g, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-180: 1 spec. h. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. , Hiatt; Loc. E 2-30: 3 spec. i. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; RB. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-325: 1 spec. j. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. . Hiatt; Loc. E 2-367: specs k. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July-August, 1951; A. H. Banner: LL Specs 1. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; ocean reef; August l, 1951; A. H,. Banner: i.ispec.
me Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; outer reef flat, from Trochus shell; July 26, 1951; A, H. Banner: 1 spec. (color: black).
ne Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 5, 1951; A. Hh. Banner; Loc. B-3: 2 spec.
Oo. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 10, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, B-6: lspeics ; be ie Te
pe Ailuk Island, Ailuk Atoll, Marshall Islands; seaward reef; 1951- 1952; F, S. MacNeil; Loc. 857: 5 spec. :
q. Bock Island, Ujae Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1952; F. S. MacNeil; Loc. 921: 3-spec.
r. North end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, luamotu Islands; inter- tidal gravel flats in incomplete channel; July 21, 1952; J. P. HE. Morrison; Loc. 196: 3 spec.
S. South end of Nearumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; shore line, rock and gravel at low tide line or below, at night;
July 23, 1952; J. P. EB, Morrison; Loc. 1976: 1 spec.
t. North end Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer recf meavritt. Aucust 6, 1952; J, F. H. Morrison; Loc. 2093: ,duspee.
u. Neavarivari Island, Raroia Atqll, Tuamotu Islands; at and just above the high tide line of blackened coral gravel and rocks; Mueust 26, 1952; J. P. EH. Morrison; Loc, 2222: iL spee.
Clibanarius eurysternus: Hilgendorf ae Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, B 2-30): 3 spec. be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 25, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. A-5: 1. spec.
Clibanarius humilis Dana ae Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 12, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. A=1: SPEC. be Onotoa, Gilbert Islands: July 13, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. A-2: 18 spec. ce Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 11, 1951; 4. H. Banner; Loc, Al: 1 spec.
- hé -
d. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 25, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. A-5: 1 spec. (from Mitra shell). e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 8, 1951; A. H, Banner; Loc. B-h: 1 spec. f. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July-August, 1951; A. H. Banner: 2) spec.
Clibanerius sp. a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April h, 19h9; P. EB. Clouds; Loc. G-7a: 2 spec.
Dardanus deformis (H. Milne Edwards)
a, Aa tule) Island, Ailuk Atoll, Marshall Islands; from inner rubble flat on seaward eee aoe: December 2h, 1951; F. R. Fosberg; Loic. 6354) di spec.
b. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atcll, Tuamotu Islands; from sandy stretches between rocks etc., inner reef flats, up to 3 ft. below low tide, collected at night atipier at village; July 5, 19523 dit 1s Morrison; Loe, 1851: 1 spec.
ce "Les Tropiques," 2 km. W. of Papeete, Tahiti, Society Islands; muddy sand bottom from shallow water near shore, only 3 to 6 inches of water at low tide; collected at night; inner fringing reef flats; September 13, 1952; J. P. BE. Morrison; Loc..2286:
5 spece
d. "Les Tropiques," 2 lm. W. of Papeete, Tahiti, Society ‘Islands; sea anemone carrying hermit crabs (white eyed with the flash- iight, and) fast sere) from inner (fringing) reef flats near shore, 1 ft. or less of water, at nights. eee ver et ae 1952: iis fly Morrison; Loc,. 22872 2 spec.
Dardanus cuopsis (Dana) | arn ae Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; &. W. Hiatt; loc, EB 2-16: 1 spec. be Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. BE 2-3)0: -2 spec. ce. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W, Hiatt; Loc, EH 2-506: l.spec. d. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-510: 1 spec. shee . e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July-August, 1951; A. H. Banner: 1 spec. f. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 1, 1951; A. H. Banners Loc. S=8% 1 spec. (identity not certain). ge Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about h 1/2 miles S..86° W. from Aiaki Maneaba on the lagoon side of the broad reef passage N. of a narrower passage called Rawa Bao, from small patch reefs rising to within -6 ft. of the surface from a limesand and coral gravel bottom at 2 fathoms; July 275 1951; P, EB. Cloud: Loc, GOC-25: 1 spec. (from Trochus). h. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; slightly less than ) miles N. 85° W from Aiaki Maneaba in outer lagoon. Patch reefs rising above the limesand surface at. 1) ft. to within 6 ft., of the surface; July 30, 1951; P,. EH... Clouds; Loc, .GOC-28: 1 spec,
i. Onotoa, Gilbert. Islands; SE. end of Rakai Ati reef area, 5. side of big windward point of reef, near center of atoll. Collected from 1/2 mile strip across the reef; August 20, 1951; F. E. Cloud; Loc, GOC-36: 2 spec. :
j. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 34 miles N. 31° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba near the center of Te Rawa ni Bao, a pass in the 5. part of the leeward reef; from thickly set coral masses rising from: 15 ft. (sounded at low tide) of water to within about S210 £t. of the surface locally; August 23, 1952; PP. E. Clouds Loc. GOC-51: 1 spec.
Dardanus fabimenus (Dana) ' ae Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. , Hiatt; loc. E 2-398: 1 spec. be. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; outer reef flat; from Terebra shell; July 26, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. Belb: 3 spec. (sandy color). ec. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 8, 1951; A. H. Banner; loc. Bel: Ly ys 2
Dardanus gemmatus (H. Milne Edwards)
a, Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; SE. end of Rakai Ati reef area, 5. side of big windward point of reef near centcr of atoll; from 1/2 mile strip across the reef; August 20, 1951; P. #. Cloud;
Loe. GOC-36: l'spec. :
Dardanus puttatus (Olivier) -
a. Arno ‘Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-391:
1 spec,
b. Arno toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-30): 1 spec.
ce. Jrno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-367: 1 spec.
Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W, Hiatt; Loc. E 2-l5h: 1 spec.
e. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about + miles S, 86° W, from Aiaki Maneaba on the lagoon side of the broad reef passage N. of a narrower passage called Rawa Bao; from small patch reefs rising to within -6 ft. of the surface from a limesand and coral gravel bottom at 2 fathoms; July 27, 1951; P. E. Cloud; Loc. GOC-25:
1 spec. (from Lambis chiragra). Guo
f. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 3+ miles N. 31° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba near the center of Te Rawa ni Bao, a pass in the S. part of the leeward reef; from thickly set coral masses rising from 15 ft. (sounded at low tide) of water to within about 8-10 ft. of the surface locally; August 23, 1951; P. =. Cloud; Loc, GOC-51: 1 ‘spec.
g. Between Taka and Lojiron Islands, Taka Atoll, Marshall Islands; on recf in several feet of water, inhabiting a large heavy Lambis shells; December 7, 1951; F, 2. Fosberg; Loc, 55: 1 spec.
d
Dardanus mogistos (Herbst)
a. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; large red hermit: crabs from below low tide on lagoon side near pier at village, collected at nights; July 5, 1952; J. P. E. Houses 2. Loc. 188% 2.spece
b. North end of Oneroa Island, Raroia ‘toll, Tuamotu Islands; on and under coralline rocks on gravel flats just below low tide line of inner rcef (lagoon) shore, at night; August 6, ee dra esate Morrison; Loc, 20/2: i spec.
Dardanus spinimanus (H. Milne Edwards) al | ae Arno At toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-325: 1 spec. ye b. Arno “toll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. B 2-339: 1 spec.
Dardanus sp. (near crassimanus [H. Milne Edwards]. )+ a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc. E 2-506: 1 spec.
Subfamily Pagurinae
Pagurus laevimanus (Ortmann) a. Yaipan, Marianas Islands; January 30, 1949; P. HE. Cloud: 1 spec. b. Saipan, Marianas Islands; taken from dead coral and algal rock at about, 10 ft... April 6, 199; Py Bh, Chouds, Moe. ASG. isoecs c. Lagoon west of Saipan, Neoaeee Roane hprdl Li, 19h93 P ape Cloud; Loc. C-7as 2 spec.
GALATHE IDEA (Only Partly Identified) Family Galatheidae Galathea elegans Adams & White ae Kwadak Island, Kwajalein Atoll, Marshall Tetendes on pomenuals
bennetti (J. Muller), in 3-) oer of water; July 7, 1951 PiVEiCllouds) 2 spec.) \(Crimoid identified by “Mr. Austin at Clark),
Family Porcellanidae
Neopetrolisthes ohshimai: Miyake
a. ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; outer sea reef slope; commensal with giant sea anemone, Disocosoma; June-September, LOSOs Tue Way aertte boce.k 16732) wil spec,
a On
III, Macrura SCYLLARIDEA Family Scyllaridae
Parribacus antarcticus (Lund)
ae North of Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; lagoon reef flat; June-August 1950; J. W. Wells; Loc. S. 20: 1 spec.
b. Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; windward sea reef; July 1951; A. H. Banners; Loc, A-l: 1 juv.
ce Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; windward sea reef; August 2, 19513 A. H. Banner; Loc, A-8: 1 ju.
d. Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; August 7, 1951; P. E. Cloud: 1 specs
e. Ngarunaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef, fishing at night; July 22, 1952; de Be dis Morrisons, oes, 1972: 2 spec.
£. South cnd of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; near edge of outer reef a little behind the Lithothamnion ridge; fishing at night; July 23, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 1979- 1983: 2 spec.
Family Palinuridae
Panulirus versicolor (Latreille) | | ae Cnotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; July-September 1951; A. H, Banner: 1 spec. b. Ime village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from under coral head, outer lagoon reef slope; June-September 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-55: 1 spec.
Panulirus penicillatus (Olivier)
ae Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from under coral head, outer lagoon reef slopes; June-September 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-55. !
be. Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; July-September 1951; A. H. Banner: 2 spec.
c. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tu fishing at nights; July 22, 1952; 1 spec.
d. South end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; near edge of outer reef, a little behind Lithothamnion ridge; fishing at night; July 23, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 1983: 1 spec.
e. Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuemotu Islands; under coral on outer reef behind reef edge in coral and pool area; at night; Aususe 5— 19522 1 ave. female,
amotu Islands; outer reef; J. P. E., Morrison; Loc. 197h:
- 50 -
THALASSINIDEA Family Axiidae
Axius (Neaxius) acanthus A, iiiIne Edwards . Lagoon west of Susupe, Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 2h, 19h9; Poe. Cilouds) loc. G=0s |) 2 srec.
Axiopsis (Axiopsis). serratifrons (A. ifilne Edwards) a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August 2, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. A-9: 2 SDeC. b. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; Heliopora tidepool in sand at S. end of the northern main island at 1 ft. low tide; August 2, 1951; P, #, Cloud; Loc, GOC-30: - 1 ovis. femate,
Axiopsis. (Paraxiopsis) bisquamosa De ilann: . : | a, Lagoon.west of Saipan; Marianas Islands; April 12, 199; P. E,
Clouds ‘Loc A-5: 2 .spec. Family Callianassidae
Upogebia amboinensis (De en) a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; about 13,00 ft. S. 75° W. from Aiaki Maneaba in the gece central part of the lagoon. Botton of low scattered dead and living coral patches on intervening lime mud and ne sand about 30-l0% seds, 60-70% coral; August 25, 19513. P.. EB, Cloud; loc, GOC-55: 9 spec.
Callianassa (Trypaea) gravieri Nobili a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; tide flat area south of Aonteuma; August 21, 1951; A, EH. Banner: 1 ovig. female. | b. Onotoa, Guibert Teleness clean lime sand flat in the vicinity of a point about 3000 ft. BE. of Aontewna, NW, Onotoa; area exposed at midtide; August 21, 1951; P. E. Cloud; GOC-h2: 1 ovig. female. -
Callianidea elongata (Guerin) | : a. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; July 19, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, A+h: 1 ‘spec. PENABIDEA Family Penacidae Metapenaecopsis sp.
a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; June-September 1950; R. W, Hiatts Los 222 75 eu wil. ajay
ea eek
CARIDEA Family Pasiphaeidae
Leptochela robusta Stimpson a. lwo hundred feet outside Ujae Atoll, Marshall Islands; skimmed from the surface of the sea at the stem of the ship under lights; 1951-1952; F, S. MacNeil; Loc. 922: 11 spec.
Family Disciadidae
Discias musicus new species a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; ee shore- ward of barrier reef flat; April 10, 199: P. E. Cloud; Loe. C-7a: 1 specs
Family Processidae
Nikoides sibogae De Man a. Lagoon west of Saipan, liarianas Islands: immediately shore- ward of barrier reef flat; P, HE, Cloud; April 10, 19h9; Loc, C-7a: 1 spec,
Nikoides nanus Chace
ae Lagoon we west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; seaward side of reef, bottom with abundant patches and knolls of mostly dead coral, crustose corallines, and coralline or coral rubble, with areas of coral algal concentration; depths 10-60 ft, with local coral algal shoals; May h, 199; P, E, Cloud; Loc. E-7: 1 ovig. female.
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, liarianas Islands; entrance of lagoon, bottom of limesand with fairly abundantly scattered knolls and patches of mostly dead coral and/or crustose corallines; depth generally exceeding 20 ft; May 13, 199; P. E, Cloud; Loc. D-7: 1 spec,
Family Thalassocaridae
Thalassocaris crinita (Dana) ad. Southeast part of main lagoon, 4#rno Atoll, Marshall Islands; haul No. 33; 20 fms. deep; July 22, 1950; John W. Wells; Lecs 39% 3: Spec.
Family Hippolytidae Saron marmoratus (Olivier) a, Matuis Beach, NW. Saipan, Marianas Islands; taken mostly from
clumps of erin Acropora and wii from Focillopora damicornis cespitosa; December 1, 198; P. E. Cloud: 1 spec.
oo BB
be
Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; immediately shore- ward of barrier reef) flats May. 13,/ 199; FP. 2.) Clouds Loc. C-7az: 1 spec.
c. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from ead of Acropora
ad.
spec. about midway between the ener and the Sea. reef ‘edge; June-September 1950; R, W. ame wi LOC) GRR OGe) 4 a SPCC. Onotoz Atoll, Gilbert Island ‘toward S.:end of a.lee reef stretch known as Rakai Lo in an area of small coral patches fairly thickly interspersed on, limesand and coral debris; depth at low tide 3-) fty; July 26, 1951; F. H, Clouds GOC-2): 1 spec.
Saron neglectus De Man
ae
be
Q °
Q, °
Thor
Lagoon. west of Saipan, llarianas Islands; immediately shore- ward of barrier reef flat; May 13, 19h9; P. E, Cloud; Loc. C-7a: 2 Spec.
Ine village, Arno 4toll, Marshall Islands; from head of Acropora Spece3 about midway between the shore and the sea reef-.edge; June-September 1950; R. i, Hiatt; Loc. E 1-288: 1 ovig. female.
Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from head of Pocillopora spece near outer edge of sca reef; -June-September 1950; R, W, Thatis locs Si t—62lrs> 2i-specs.
Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; ‘from head of Acropora spec. near outer edge of lagoon reef; June-September 19503 Repl, Habis) boos: bj2=8/S<". lispec..
auebes Atoll, Gilbert Islands; toward 5, end of a lee reef stretch enown as Rakai Ati, in am area of small coral patches fairly thickly interspersed: on limesand and coral debris; depth at low tide 3-l ft.; July 25, 1951; P. E. Clouds’ Loc. GOC— PANN A shoei or
Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert. Islands; about 9200 ft. S, 72° W. from offshore end of Government Station jetty (on S. portion of northern main island) just S. of main passage out of lagoon (Rawa ni Karoro) where coral shoals known as Aon te ra Bata begin to deepen; collected from area where patch reefs rise above the limesand bottom at 16 ft. depth; July 29, 1951;
BP, Ge Clouds ‘Loc. GO0C-27:,\1 spec.
Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about 34 miles N. 31° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba near the center of Te Rawa ni Bao, a pass on the S, part of the leeward reef; collected from thickly set coral masses rising 15 ott. (sounded at low, tide) of water to within about 8-10: ft. of the surface locally; August 23, 1951; P, BE. Cloud; Loc. GOC-51: 1 spec.
maldivensis Borradaile Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 19h9; P. . Cloud; Loc. h, 500 yds. NNE, of MaBagaha Island: .2 spec.
be Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about 3+ miles N. 31° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba near the center of Te Rawa ni Bao, a pass in the S. part of the leeward reef; from thickly set coral masses rising from 15 fect feed at low tide) of water to within about 8-10 feet of the surface locally; August 23, 1951; P. E. Cloud; Loc, GOC-51: 3 spec.
Thor paschalis (Heller)
ae Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; entrance of lagoon, bottom of abundant patches and knolls of mostly dead coral, crustose corallines, and coralline and coral rubble, with areas floored by limesand around, between and locally on the areas of coral-alg2i concentration; depth generally exceeds 30 feet; 1919; P. E. Cloud; Loc, D-8: 1 ovig. female.
b. Legoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 10, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. C-7a; immediately shoreward of barrier reef flat: 2 SPCCe
c. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 199; P. 5. Cloud; Loc. ), 500 yds. NNE, of Managaha Island: 1 ovig. female.
Family Rhynchocinetidae
Rhynchocinctes hiatti new sp. a. Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; August 1951; A. H. Banner: 3 spec.
b. North end of Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from surge channels in outcr reef, at and beyond Lithothamnion ridge; August 6, 1952; J. P, E, Morrison; Loc. 2064: 1h spec.
Family Palaemonidae Subfamily Palaemonineae
Palaemon debilis Dana
a. lehakapikipiki Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; brackish enclosed lagoon, in area little below low tide line, in about 1-2 feet of water, sandy noe around rocks and coralline gravels July 29, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc, 2013: about 2500 spec.
be South side of Oteteu Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; just above silty sand vottom, lagoon end of incomplcte plene (plugged up with sand bar); in daytime; August 21, 1952; J. P., E. Morrison; Loc. 2162: 69 spe
Palaemon concinnus Dana a. Harrison Smith's Place, Maitaiea Peete, Tahiti, Society Islands; estuarine tree swamp (Tahitiam Chestnut?), black mud bottom; June 21, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 1813: 92 spec.
Macrobrachium aemulum (Nobili) a. Punaruu River, 1) km. W. of Papeete, Tahiti, Socicty Islands; in the rapids just above the road bridge; low water after several days without rain (dry season), June ly, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc, 1809: 1,)spec, .
si NEN
eo Macrobrachium australe (Guerin)
a. Vaipoopo,River, about 12 km. E. of Papeete, Tahiti, Society po lene in quiet margin of -the river; Pelbember 15 952 uh ane Morrison} Loc. 2297: 1 spec.
Macrobrachium lar (Fabricius) , ne Ae Chics a 3950 fect due west of Unai Talofofo, Saipan, Mlerianas Islands; in small pools in the stream=bed of the river; 199; P. ze Cloud: 10 spec.
Brachycarpus biunguiculatus (lucas) a. North end of Oncroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from surge channels .at and he oad Lithothamnion ridges; August 6, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 2063: 1 spec.
Subfamily. Fontoniinac
Palecnonen i tenuipes Dana ae a, Ine village, 4arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from Acropora heads ; on sea reefs Sune se ebenber 1950;.R. W. Hiatt; Loc. 1-288: 2 spec. b. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from coral heads on sea recf; June-September 19503 XR, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-388: 1 Spees ec. Ine village, Arno. Atoll, Marshall Islands; from coral heads on sea reef; June-September 1950; Ro We: Hiatt; Lee, E 1-307 seh spee.
Palaemonella vestigialis TBD a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; immediate sly shoreward of barrier reef flat; April 10, 19h9; P, E, Cloud; Loc. C-7a: 1 ovig. female,
Palaemonella denticulata (Nobili)
a. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from Acropora heads in lagoon reef; “June-September 1950; R, W, Hiatt; Loc. Bh 2-375: 2 isipeic’s
be. Oneroa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; about 3/l, mile inside elseoae sand film over rock pavement and coral patches on bottom; }O ft. of water: dredges; August 9, 1952;.J. P. E, Morrison; Loc. 2100:. 5 specs.
Vir orientalis (Dana) =, ae Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; from coral heads in h-6 £t..of waters April 7, 1949; P. E. Clouds Locs:A=11% 1 ovig. female. Ma b. Off Unai Dikiki Matuis, NW. Saipan,: Marianas Islands;. near reef off Naval Magazine; Be mle ceed een coal April 20, 19h9; .Mirs. Alice Davis: 1 ovig. female.
Periclimenes (Harpilius) elegans (Paulson) a. Ine village, Arno Atoll, ilarshall Islands;. inner region of sea reef flats; from branches of dead coral head; June-September 19503 Re We Hiatt; Loc. EH i-139%.. 1) spec.
Periclimenes (Harpilius) s spiniferus De Man
a. llatuis Beach, NW. Saipan, Marianas Islands; December 1, 1918; Po he Cloud: 8 spec.
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; from coral heads in h-6 ft. of water; April 7, 1949; P. BE. Cloud; Loc. A-11: 1 ovig. female.
ec. Saipan, Marianas; from a single large head of Acropora leptocyathus (Brooks July 2, 1919; P. E. Cloud: 1 spec.
d. Ine village, ino Atoll, Marshall Islands; from coral heads on sea reef; TuneeSeytenmen 19503; R. W, Hiatt; Loc. © 1-388: 1 spec.
ee Ine village, Arno Atoll, ilarshall Islands; from Seriatopora heads on lagoon reef; June-September 1950; Kk, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-350: 6 spec.
Periclimenes (Harpilius) b bayeri n. sp. a. Ine village, irno Atcll, ilarshall Islands; sea reef; Jumc-September 1950; KR, W,. Hiatt; tyes E 1-207: 1 spec. b. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; outer edge of sea reef; from head of Pocillopora sp.; June-September 1950; Ey We Hiatt; Loc. E 1-634: 1 spec,
Paranchistus biunguiculatus (Borradaile) a. Lagoon, Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; in Tridacna gigas (L.);° July 16, 1951; P. EB. Cloud: 1 spec.
de Legoon, Ujae Atoll, Marshall Islands; from the inside of a large live Trvideecna; 1961-1952; F, 5S. MacNeil; Loc. 923: 1 ovig. female.
Anchistus miersi (De ilen) a. Ine village,.irno Atoll, Marshall Islands; lagoon reef; commensal with. the giant clam Hipnopus hippopus G. |. ede ooctenbew 19503 RW. Hiatt; Loc. & 1-125: 2 spec. be Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; lagoon reef; commensal with the giant clam Hipeorus oe (L.); June-September 1950; KR. W., Hiatts Loe. H 2-9: 1 ovig. female.
Anchistus demani Kemp &. ine anchorage, Arno eet Marshall Islands; reef flat, coral rocks; July-August 1950; J. W. Wells; Loc. 6: 1 ovig. female,
Periclimenacus quadridentatus (Rathbun) a. Legoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 199; P. =. Cloud; Loc. h, 500 yds NNE. of Managehe Island: 1 ovig. female. b. Legoon ‘west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 10,199; P. E, Cloud; Loc, C-7a, immediately shoreward of barrier reef flat: 3 spec.
Periclimenasus tridentatus (Miers)
a. Rinai Finauchutugan, Saipan, Marianas Islands; January 30, DOUG; Pete, Clouds 1. specs
wa HOH i
Onycocaris stenolepis Holthuis
a. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from coral heads on sea reef; Junce-September 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-307: 1 ovig. female.
Philarius gerlachei (Nobili)
a. ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of sea reef, on Acropora heads; June-September 1950; R, W. Hiatt; hoes fl =O: Mee pece
b. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of sca reef, from coral heads; June-Sept bomber 1950; Rew. Hiatus Loe, (EH 1=3663" "li spec.
Ce Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; slightly less than miles N. 85° W. from Aieki Maneaba in outer lagoon; patch reefs rising above the limesand surface at 1) ft. to within 6 ft. of the surface; July 30, 1951; P. Es Clouds. Loc. GO0C=28:...2 speu.
Philarius imperialis (Kubo) a. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of lagoon reef; from Acropora heads; June-September 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. BE 2-375: 3 spec.
Pontoniopsis comanthi aes
a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 10, 199; P. 2B. Cloud; Loc, C-7; te reef flats; from Coma Sead Crinoid:
1 ovig. female.
‘be Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about 4 miles S, 86° W. from Ajaki Menesba on the lagoon side of the broad reef passage N. of a narrower passage called rawa Bao; from small patch reefs rising to within -6 ft. of the surface from a limesand and coral gravel bottom at 2 fms.; on Crinoids; July 27, 1954;
P, EH. Cloud; Loc, GOC-25: ‘1 ovig. female.
Pontonia hurii n. sp. Be oie Atoll, Marshall Islands; from mantle cavity of rock clam, Spondylus sp.; June-September 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-389: 1 ovig. female. b. Tepatahiti Island, Raroia toll, Tuamotu Islands; off patch reef in lagoon opposite island; 25-30 ft. water; from Spondylus sp.3 Aupusib 274 1952s J, FP, By Morrison; Loce) 2227: 8 SPCC.
Harpiliopsis beaupresi (jAudouin) a. ine village, 4rno Atoll, Marshall Islands; from coral heads on aes reef; ence wtenber 19503 R, We Hiatt; Loc. & 1-307 and E » 12388: 7 spec.
b. Ine village, Arno Atoll, iarshall Islands; Pocillopora sp. on sea reefs aueuecneenber 19503; R. W. meee Locs, EV ieor8 5 spec.
Harpiliopsis depressus (Stimpson) a. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshell Islands; in coral heeds of sea reef; Tone entanber 1950; R.. W. Hiatt; Loc. E. 1-307, ho =388: 7 spec.
my
b. Ine village, “rno Atoll, Marshall Islands; in Pocillopora heads of sea reef; June-September 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-618, E 1-633: 5 ovig. females.
c. Ine village, 4rno Atoll, iiarshall Islands; in Stylophora heads of sea reef; June—September 1950; R, W, Hiatt; Loc. E 1-69: 3 spec.
d. Ine village, Arno ‘toll, Marshall Islarids; in Seriatopora heads of lagoon reef; June-September 1950; BR. W, Hiatt; Loc. E 2-350: 3 spec.
e. Ine village, #rno Atoll, Marshall Islands; in Acropora heads of lagoon reef; June-September 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2~375: 1 spec. (damaged).
f. Onotoa toll, Gilbert Islands; about 8600 feet N, 18° W. from Tabuarorae Maneaba in 17 ft. of water mean low tide; August 10, 1951; P, E. Cloud; Loc, GOC-35: 3 spec.
Stegovontonia commensalis Nobili
a. North end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from pockets (sandy bottom, etc.) in inner reef only near lagoon edge of reef in transect area at nights; from sea urchin No. 2238, Echinothrix diadema (L.); September 2, 1952; J, P. E. Morrison; Loc, 226: 1 ovig female.
b. Ilot Pore Epic, ESE, of Noumea, New Caledonia; commensally on Diadema setosum (leske); April 19, 1953; R. Catala: 1 ovig, female.
Coralliocearis graminea (Dana)
d. Ine village, ‘irno .itoll, Marshall Islands; from head of Acropora sp.3 about midway between the shore and the sea reef; June-September, 1950: R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-268: 3 spec.
b. Ine village, arno Atoll, larshall Islands; about half way out on sea reef flat; from sponge on base of dead coral head; June-September 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc. EZ 1-307: h spec.
ce Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of sea recf flat} from heads of Acropora sp.3 June-September 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-388: 1 spec.
d. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of sea reef; from head of Acropora sp.3 June-September 1950;
RW. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-612: 8 spec.
e. Ine village, Arno “toll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of sea reef; from head of Acropora sp.; June=September 1950;
R, W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-612: 2 spec,
f. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of lagoon reef; from Acropora sp.; June-September 1950; R, W, Hiatt;
a eee
Log, "8 2-375! 6 spec!
Coralliocaris superba (Dana)
a, Lagoon N. of Matuis Beach, MV, Saipan, Marianas Islands; picked from head of brown Acropora sp.3; December 12, 198; P. E. Cloud: 1 spec.
be Saipan, Marianas Islands; from a single large head of Acropora leptocyathus (Brook); July 2, 1949; P. E. Cloud: 2 spec.
ot 5B
c. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of sea reef flats; from heads of Acropora spe; June—September | 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc, E 1-388: 3 spec.
d. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands: near outer edge of sea reef; from head of Acropora sp.; June-September 1950;
Re We Hietbs (boc (ie Weoioe le spec.
Coralliocaris nudirostris (Heller)
a. Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of sea reef; from head of Acropora sp.3; June-September 1950; R, W, Hiatt; Loc, HE 1-612: “2 spec. |
be Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; slightly less than 4 miles N, 85° W. from Aiaki Maneaba in outer lagoon; patch reefs rising above limesand bottom at 1 feet to within 6 feet of the : surface; July 30, 1951; P, E. Cloud; Loc, GOC-28: 1 ovig. female.
s
Jocaste lucina (Nobili)
a, Lagoon W, of Saipan, Marienas Islands; from coral heads in 4-6 ft. of waters April 7, 199: P. H.. Cloud; Loc, A-lil: 6 spec.
b. Lagoon W, of Saipan, Marianas Islands; 4pril 19, 199; P. =. Cloud; Loc. F{X: 1 spec.
ce. Lagoon W, of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc, 4, 500 yds; NNE.-of Managaha Island: 1 spec.
d. Ine village, :rno Atoll, Marshall Islands; about midway between the shore and the sea reef edge; from head of Acropora sp.3; June-September 1950; R, W, Hiatt; Loc, BE 1-288: 1 spec. ©
e. Ine village, .irno Atoll, Marshall Islands; about half way out on sea reef flat; from sponge on base of dead coral head; June-September 1950; R, W, Hiatt: Loc, E 1-307: h spec.
f. Ine village, “rno toll, Marshall Islands; near outer edge of sea reef flat; from heads of “cropora sp.3; June-September 1950; Ry We Hiatt. loc, © i388) Bh TaOloy me Teonee | 28 spec,
ge Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about 9200 ft. S. 729 W, from offshore end of Government Station jetty (on S$. portion of northern main island) just S. of main passage out of lagoon (Rawa ni Karoro) where coral shoals known as Aon te ra Bata begin to deepen; from low coral patch about 1) ft. below the surface; bottom limesand, at about 16 feet depth; July 29, 1950: 5. H,. Cloud; Loe, GOC-27: 1 spec,
he Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; about 3% miles N. 31° W.° from Tabuerorae Maneaba near the center of Te Hawa ni Bao, a pass in the 5. part of the leeward reef; from thickly set coral masses rising. from 15 feet (sounded at low tide) to within about 8-10 feet of the surface locally; August 23, 19513 Po He. Cloud; Loc. GOC=51: 1 ovig. female,
Conchodytes meleagrinae Peters ae Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; edge of lagoon reef; commensal with pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera (L.); June—September 1950; R, WW, Hiatt; Loc, E 2-25: 1 ovig. female.
b. Tehakapikipiki Island, Raroia Atoll, Tvamotu Islands; slope of Tomogoru patch reef, approximately 1 mile W. of the center of lagoon shore; depth 30 feet; from mantle cavity of peari oyster (No. 2017); July 29, 1952; J. FP. E. Morrison; loc. 2018: 2 spec.
Ce South end of Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; off inner reef; depth 15 feet; from pearl oyster (No. 2021); August 1, 1952:*3.°P."E."Morrison; Loc. 2022: ‘2 spec.
Conchodytes tridacnae Peters a. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; commensal in the mantle cavity of giant clams, Tridacna elongata; June-September 1950; R, W. Eiatt; Loc. E 2-2: 2 spec.
Family Gnathophyllidae
Gnathophyllum americanun Guérin a. Lagoon i. of Susupe, Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 2h, 19h9; Pett Cloud, Jere; Loc, ‘G=i5*"2 spec; b. East side of Kakapuka Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; from first channel; August 26, 1952; J. P, E, Morrison; Loc, 2187: 1 spec.
STENOPODIDEA Family Stenopodidae
Stenopus hispidus (Olivier)
ae Lagoon W. of Susupe, Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 2h, 199; P, EY Cloud; Loe, G-1: 2 spec.
be Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; July-September 1951; A. H. Banner: 1 spec,
Ce Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands; lagoons July 2h, 1951; A. H. Banner: 1 spec.
d. Mataira Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; under rock in pool near shore, outer reef flats; July 16, 1952; J. P. E. Morrison; Loc. 19: 2 spec. 3
STOMATOPODA
Pseudosquilla ornata Miers a. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands 3 Aric 2 iy 1993 April 28, 199; P, E. Cloud; Loc. 2, from $ ton block of aa coral- algal rock taken on see on, LL “636s 1 spec.
Pseudosquilla oxyrhyncha Borradaile a. About $ mile E. offshore from the central part of Bikati Island, Butaritari Atoll, Gilbert Islands; in pocket of broad area of Heliopora reef; September 3, 1951; P. E. Cloud; Loc, GBC-2: 1 spec,
Pseudosquilla sp.
a, Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc, D-5: 1 juve
b. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 13, 1949; P. E. Clouds Loe, DG 8 all; ju.
c. Ujae Rota, Marshall Islands; skimmed from surface of sea at stern of ai under lights; anchored 200 feet outside Ujae passage; 1951-1952; F. S, MacNeil; hoes 92234" 2) juvse
All are juveniles, a and c are in the monodactyla stage, b is slightly larger.
Gonodactylus gyrosus Odhner ae Ine village, Arno Atoll, Marshall. Toten from outer edge of sea reef; une-Sepbenber Ties R, W. Hiatt; Loe. E 1-06: 1 spec.
O Gonodactylus falcatus (Forskal)
a. Matuis Beach, NW, Saipan, ilarianas Islands; taken mostly from clumps of brown Acropora and partly from Pocillopora damicornis cespitosa Dana; December 1, 1918; P, HE. Cloud: 2 spec.
b. Onotoa ‘Atoll, Gilbert Islands; August 8, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loe, Belre 2) svec,
Gonodactylus chiragra (Fabr.)
a. Saipan, Marianas Islands; 199; P. E. Clouds; Loc. C-IX: 1 spec.
be Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 12, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc, A-5: 2 spec.
c. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; Loc. A-7; April 27, 199: P, HE. Cloud: 1 spec.
d. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April h, 1949; P. E, Cloud; Loc. A-11; from coral heads in 4-6 feet of water: 1 spec.
e. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 6, 1949; P. E, Cloud; Loc. D-5: 5 spec.
f. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May 3, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. E-l: 1 spec.
g. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; May h, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. E-7; from coral rock: 3 spec.
m= ON me
h. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; April 19, 199; P. E. Cloud; Loc. F=X: 2 spec, wi. Lagoon west of Saipan, Marianas Islands; June 20, 19h9 5 Ee By Cloud; Loc. h; 500 yards NNE, of Managaha Islands 7 spec. je Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W, Hiatt; Loc. E 1-305:
ae ae. Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-178:
Le ae eesiean Islands; 1950; 2, W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-375:
Me ee capes Islands; July 13, 1951; A. H. Banners; Loc, A-2:
Ne a ae Tseng July 19, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc. Als
Oo ee cation, Islands; August 2, 1951; P. BE, Clouds Loc, GOC-30:
Pe cnotoa, eatbert Islands; August 1, 1951; P. E. Clouds; Loc. GOC~32: Spec.
q. Bikati Islet, Butariteri Atoll, Gilbert Islands; September 3, 1951; P, HE. Cloud; Loc. GBC-2: 1 ‘spec.
Gonodactylus chiragra platysoma Wood-Maso
a, Arno Atoll, , Marshall Islands; 1950; Re W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-29: 2 spec.
be Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 1-701: 1 spec.
ce, Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R, W. Hiatt; Loc. E 2-22: lL spec.
d. Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands; 1950; R. W. Hiatt; Loc, E 2-511: 2 spec,
we. Onotoa, Gilbert Islands; August h, 1951; A. H. Banner; Loc, A 10-12: 1 spec.
f. West of Ailuk Island, Ailuk Atoll, Marshall Islands; seaward side of leeward reef; 1951-1952; F, S, MacNeil; Loc. 87:
2 spec.
g. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; under rocks on middle to inner section or zone of outer reef opposite village; July 6, 1952; J. P. EH. Morrison; Loc, 1861: 1 spec.
h. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuemotu Islands; outer reef flats; July 11, 1952; J. P. Ee Morrisens ‘Loc. 19202 1'spec.
i. Ngarumaoa Island, Raroia Atoll, Tuamotu Islands; outer reef flats Apeust 25, 1952s 3. Py Ey lerrisons Loc 2215 “L spe'es
racy aes
HHP eee ewe ee eee eee
BREE FSS SP eSaeeeeoae
Ee el
Hae
1-3. 1-7. ile Ore TAO ne a eaey 1262 Tell. 1- 2 ® el. 1-h6, 1-l:7. 1-8 e P50), 1-52, 166), 1=108% TOO), 1-153, 163
seal a = Lh 1-29), 123.02); 1-30), 1-305, 12386. 1-3 89 ® 1-390. 39a), 1-399 ry 1=)00¢ 1-06, Lei, 1-13,
1=))16, 1-17.
Uenaieye 1-))19. Ue alersy 1-20.
Appendix
r Collection data relating to specimens taken by R, W. Hiatt at Arno Atoll
Churchyard, Ine Village, about 30 yards from edge of water. Under rocks near’ shore on sea reef, (Ine.
Common on rocks near shore, especially at night.
Undersides of rocks in shallow water on sea reef.
On rocks exposed at low tide, sea reef, Ine.
Sandy bottom near shore, sea reef, Ine.
Inshore area, sea reef, Ine. Sandy bottom inshore on sea reef, Ine.
Common under rocks sitting in inshore tide pools, sea Hea Ine.
Sandy bottom inshore on sea reef, Ine. Common under rocks and boulders inshore On Sea preet. Ine.
‘Common in sand inshore on sea reef, met
Common under rocks in sand inshore on sea reef, Ine.
Common in inshore areca of sea reef, Ine.
Inshore area of sea reef, Ine.
Sea reef, Ine, about halfway betgecD beers and outer eCere
Inshore area, sea reef, Ine.
Same area as E 1-108. be
In bases of dead coral heads, halfway out on sea reef, Inc.
Uncommon in dead bases of heads of Montipora garinardi, sea reef, Ine.
Common , Speirs on sea reef, Ine.
Sea reef, Ine, near outer edge «
Bases of dead coral about halfway out on sea recf, “Ine.
Sea reef near outer edge,
Common about halfway out on sea reef, Ine.
Brackish water pond on Malel Island, eae Atoll.
Sea reef near outer edge, Ine.
Near outer edge of sca reef, Ine.
Near outer edge of sea recf, Ine.
Near outer edge of sea reef, Ine.
Beach rock on sea recf side, Ine.
Beach rock and boulders on-sea reef side, Ine.
Outer edge of sea reef, Inc.
Outer sea reef edge, Ine.
Taken from trunk of breadfruit tree, 15 feet from the ground.
Several others seen higher up, all on green patches of moss or lichens.
Taken under rocks.
Taken from trunks of coconut palms bearing epiphytic ferns 3 to feet above the ground.
Common under rocks 100-200 feet inland from sea beach.
Found under overhanging base of coconut paln.
Very common over much of land area.
Common over much of land area.
GR
BRERA aaa eeee
Se es Gale ce ee |
Beet
Se
HAP Aaeae ee
ES et bi to ba
es
1-23.
1-h2h.
1-26,
1-27. 1-28,
1-29, 1-35. 1-38. 1-hho. 1-589. 4-592. 1-620. 12622, 12-691,
1-6). 1-65. 1-651. 1-658.
1-659 r
1-660, 1-661, 1-662.
1-665. 1-666, 1-666a 1667.
1-668. 1-673.
1-678, 1-680. 1-701 ° 1-702.
Common on many islets and cxtends across from sca to lagoon side on narrow islets.
Under rocks on seaward portion of Inc island.
Common on land near seaward side of Tne island.
As in B 1-26,
As in E 1-26,
As in E 1-26,
In sandy bottom, inshore area of sea recf, Inc,
Center of Ine island.
Center of Inc island.
Ine island about 200 fect from the lagoon beach.
Inshore area of sea reef, Ine.
Uncommon near outer edge of sea reef, Ine.
Common near outer edge of sea recf, in
From heads of Pocillopora sp. on Baier seaward slope of reef flat, Ine.
From Acropora sp. heads, on outer sea reef slope, Inc.
From heads of Stylophora sp., on outer sea reef slope, Inc.
From heads of Pocillopora sp., on outer sea reef slope, Ine.
Land near lagoon side of Ine island.
From decaying vegetation and coconut bushes, near lagoon beach, Ine island.
Land at edge of lagoon ee beach, Ine.
As in E 1-660,
From boulders and rocks high on the sea reef boulder rampart, Ine.
As in E 1-662.
5
-Under rocks at inner edge of sca recf, Ine. Most common crab under boulders resting on sand in shallow
tide pools of intertidal areca of sea reef shore, Ine. Uncommon, as in © 1-667. Commensal with giant anemone, Discosoma, on outer sea recf_ slope, Inc. Outer edge of sea reef, Ine. Sand beach on sea side, Ine.
Ine. u
hy in "
Abundant in shallow water of lagoon reef in sandy areas near shore, Inc. |
Lagoon beach, Inc,
Sandy bottom inshore on lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Tide pool near shore on lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Under rocks near shore on-lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Taken from shell of Trochus niloticus off outer slope of. lagoon reef, Ine.
Lagoon beach, Ine,
Taken from trunks of bread fruit trees on Tagelib islet, Arno Atoll.
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ea
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ea Be
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Bee eeee eS eS
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2-19. 2-20. 2-21. 2-22,
2-23 ®
pene eae re 2-138. 2e ily, 2-19. PuaisO, Peace, 2-155. palolie 2-170. yale
2-172. 2-175.6 2-178.
2-180. 2-185.
2-187. 2-189,
2-190. 2-192.
220 (5% 2-30). 2-306. 2-3 O7 ° 2-308. 2-325. 22-3396 2-30. 223511,
P= 6Oe 2-367 e 2-369 e 2-00.
2-101.
From head of Pocillopora near lagoon reef shore, Ine.
Under rocks on shore of lagoon, Ine.
Sand bottom inshore on lagoon reef flat, Ine.
From base of dead coral in BEAL Gar ater inshore on Haeoen reef, Tagelib Island, Arno Atoll,
From aon bottom of ‘lereiocis reer, 20 feet deep, Tagelib Island, Arno Atoll.
Walked into house in interior of Ine Island.
Ine Village.
Lagoon reef flat near outer portion, Ine.
Inshore area of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Upper edge of lagoon beach, Ine.
Lagoon beach, Ine,
From sandy bottom inshore on lagoon reef » Ine.
Sandy shore, lagoon beach,, Ine.
Sandy bottom at inner sdle of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Inner edge of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Uncommon under coral heads near outer edge of lagoon reef. ng lbeelisye Ine °
From bread fruit tree in interior of Ine Island.
Under coral head near outer edge of lagoon reef flat, Iné.
In base of dead coral head at inner -edge of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Inner portion of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Very common under rocks and in crevices in intertidal area of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Under rocks at high tide level and above on lagoon beach, Ine.
Common in tidepools in intertidal area of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Re anew) 2a 869:
Very common under rocks near the water! s eee, lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Brcaasa from 20 fathoms in the lagoon.
Common in inshore area of lagoon reef flat.
In sandy bottom at inshore edge of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
As in E 2-306.
Asin B 2-306,
Common in inshore area of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Outer edge of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Outer portion of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
From heads of Ceriatopora hystrix near outer oot of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
From heads of Stylophora mordax near outer Sage of lagoon reet flat, ine,
Outer edge of lagoon reef flat, Ine.
Inshore area of lagoon reef, Ine.
From rocks at upper edge of intertidal zone on lagoon shore, Ine.
As in & 2-00,
2240394 48 in 8.;2-h00-
an OSes
2-05. Near outer edge of lagoon reef flat, Ine. 2-3, Near outer edge of lagoon reef flat, Ine, ii 2-5). Outer lagoon reef slope, Ine. i 2-155. Under coral head, outer lagoon reef slope, Ine. e-li57. Near outer edge of lagoon reef flat, Ine. 2-188, ? 2-96, Outer lagoon reef slope, Ine. i 2-197. As in E 2+)96, i 2-98. Near outer edge of lagoon ree? flat, Ine. i 2-502 to E 2-517, All from lagoon reef except E 2-513 and EB 2-51)
which are land forms from Ine Island, Hi
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ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
No. 25
Bryophytes from Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands by
Harvey Alfred Miller and Maxwell S. Doty
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD
National Academy of Sciences—-National Research Council
Washington, D,C,
November 15, 1953.
“
BRYOPHYTES FROM ARNO ATOLL, MARSHALL ISLaNDs+
by Harvey Alfred Miller@ and Maxrell S. Doty?
There appears to have been but a single previous record of a bryophyte from the Marshalls. This is Calymperes tenerum, a widely distributed spe- cies in Oceania, collected by W. R. Taylor (12) in the northern Marshall Is- lands in 1946. Glassman (7), and others (2,3,8,9,10,11), have reported on the bryophytes from the nearby Caroline Islands. Dixon (4) published a list of mosses from the Gilbert Islands, south of the Marshalls. There is little or no reference to the bryophyta in Catala's "Report on the Gilbert Islands" prepared for the South Pacific Commission, or in the vegetational and other reports on the Pacific Science Board's atoll studies.
During the summer of 1951, Leonard Horwitz collected several species of mosses and liverworts on Arno Atoll in the southern Marshall Islands in con- nection with the Coral Atoll Project of the Pacific Science Board. Horwitz's’ collections were turned over to the authors at the University of Hawaii for determination. It is these collections which form the basis for this report. The senior author made the determinations, produced the first draft of the report manuscript and drew up the specific conclusions in reference to the bryophyta. The junior author contributed the original illustrations, the key and the labor involved in finishing the work in this form.
The authors are greatly indebted to E. B. Bartram who made many of the original determinations of the mosses. The specimens cited herein are de- posited in the U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., and in the herbarium of the B. P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, with duplicates, wherever possible, in the Chicago Museum of Natural History and the herbaria of E. B. Bartram and the authors. The senior author wishes to thank Prof. Harold St. John, of the University of Hawaii, for provision of the assistantship and space in the De- partment of Botany which have enabled him to continue his studies of Central Pacific bryophytes. The authors are grateful for the material assistance given this project by Mr. Harold J. Coolidge, Mrs. Lenore Smith, and Miss Ernestine Akers, of the Pacific Science Board.
For the convenience of future atoll workers at Arno who are not bryolo- gists, the following key is included. A set of figures made from camera lucida sketches of leaves has been included. This has been done because the
Ithis work was done with the aid of financial assistance granted by the Pacific Science Board of the National Research Council under contract N7onr-291, Task Order IV, from the Office of Naval Research and with similar assistance from the Pacific Islands Research Fund of the University of Hawaii.
-School of Biology, Stanford University, and Department of Botany, University of Hawaii.
3pepartment of Botany, University of Hawaii.
ee
leaves are so distinctive that they may be used to distinguish rather posi- tively between the few know Arno mosses. With the description of each figure there appears the number of the collection from which the drawing was made and certain remarks of aid in distinguishing the species. Illustrations have not been included for the liverworts as they are much more rare and their taxonomy is as yet most incomplete in many respects.
The characteristics to which this key refers are those visible in fresh, . water—soaked or wet, mature specimens. The leaves of all mosses should be compared with the figures as to size and other characteristics, for juvenile forms, in particular, may not "key out" in this key. It is our hope that these devices will facilitate greater familiarity with the mosses in the field and promote a study of their role in the atolls.
KEY TO THE BRYOPHYTA KNOWN FROM ARNO. ATOLL
A. et with leaves borne in ,3 planes and in sual a manner that the moist fronds are not bilateral; “leaves elliptical to lirfear lanceolate; branches usually ali erect from ae substratum (mosses):
B. Leaf bases, stems and occasionally some leaves red when stems not _ densely clothed with leaves; growing on the ground: Bryum nitens.
B. Leaf bases, stems and leaves never red (though often brow); grow- ing on wood or rocks or occasionally on the ground:
C. Growing on tree trunks or vegetable debris; tufts often over lcm. thick, dark brow anetde or pale whitish—green throughout:
D. “Tufts pale whitish green throughout: Soy uhe uss glauculum.' ©
dD. Tufts yellow at surface, . dark brom internally: Calymperes mollucense.
C. Growing on various other substrata or yellow green to green throughout, or if in donee sone chen. pO ae ag greens
E. Leaves with an area of Nee cells conspicuous near leaf base (Figs. 3, 4, 5); midribs extending to apex in leaves, percurrent, often extending into
. macroscopically visible propagulae (terminal lumps ~ . which are asexual reproductory::bodies) 3 no gees - known for the Arno material:
F. Prostrate moss with green stems and often widely spaced green leaves; leaf tips den- ticulate: _ Calymperes hyophyllaceum.
F. Erect moss with closely placed brownish green leaves; leaf tips not denticulate:
Calymperes tenerun.
E. Leaves without-an area of large cells near the base (Figs. 2, 6); midribs lacking or not extend- ing completely to the apex; leaf tips not bearing propagulae; capsules often present in abundance:
G. Leaves tapering quickly to. a long point, often sickle shaped; midrib absent or ex- tremely short; capsules often abundant:
Ectropothecium monumentorum.
G. Leaves strap-shaped, broadly rounded at apex, almost symmetrical; midrib extending nearly to leaf apex; capsules not known in Arno ma-
terial: Splachobryum indicum.
A. Axis with leaves borne in two planes and in such a manner that flat or hemispherical branches result; leaves either overlapping and ovoid or like the flattened axis in structure; usually all branches (except in Ptychocoleus) prostrate on the substratum (liverworts).
H. Leaves and axis alike in appearance, flat; frond prostrate: Riccardia multifida.
H. Leaves bladelike and axis terete; frond free or prostrate:
I. Leaves strongly overlapping so as to form a frond which is hemispherical in cross section when damp and more or less cylindrical when dry; fronds becoming free from the sub- stratum, forming a moss-like coating on tree bases up to
one centimeter thick: Ptychocoleus sp.
I. Leaves not strongly overlapping, if at all; frond usually flattened against the substratum: J. Fronds green, about or over 1.5 mm. broad: Lejeunea sp.
J. Fronds pale if green at all, about or less than
0.5 mm. broad: , : Microlejeunea sp.
MCSSES (MUSCT) Leucophanes glauculum C. Mull. in dchol tte, M. Phila op iiies 163. (SEE: Figure 1.) Eastern end of Ine Island, Horwitz 9669, 9670B, August 19, 1951. Distribution: Malaysia, Caroline Islands.
This plant was collected on decaying wood and coconut, Cocos nucifera, husks. It formed dense tufts where found. E. B. Bartram (correspondence) re- ports that F. R. Fosberg has collected this species in abundance on strand coconuts in the Carolines.
Calymperes hyophyllaceum C. MUL1. in Besch., Essai Calymp. Ann. Sci. Nat. Z3te LEO5's
(SEE: Figure 3.) Malel Island, Horwitz 9425B. Distribution: Sumatra, Java, Philippines (1).
Mixed with Riccardia multifida growing in the shade and on the under side of damp outer and inier covzonut husks. This record is based on a few scattered plants, but’ the species is so distinct that there is little question of its identity.
At the avex the leaves of this genus may bear propagulae in varying stages of development. To the naked eye the asexual reproductory lumps of cells ap- pear as little balls on the leaf tips. In figures 3,.4, and 5 the variation in shape of the apex may be due to the degree of maturity, largely in reference to the stage of propagulum development. This genus of mosses is the only one from the Marshealis that produces such structures. The presence of these propagulee is a good field character, the presence of which on a moss from Arno can be taken as indicating this genus, Calvmperes.
Calymperes mollucense Schwaegr., Suppl. II, II, p. 99, te. L275 e2ns (SEE: Figure 5.) Malel Island, Horwitz 9422, 94264, 9429B, August 4, 1951. Distribution: Moluccas, Fiji, Philippines (1). Horwitz collected a large tuft (#9422) of this species from the base of one coconut tree but gave no indication of its abundance or whether it occurs
on more than one island in the atoll. A few isolated plants (#9429B) were
scattered with the Ptychocoleus (#9429A) reported here, also from a coconut trunk.
-4-
Calymperes tenerum C. Mull., Linnaea 37: 174. 1871-73. (SEE: Figure 4.) Ine Village, Ine Island, Horwitz 9310A, August 3, 1951. Distribution: India, Malaysia, Philippines, and Pacific Islands to Hawaii.
This is a widely distributed species and the only one reported by Taylor (12) from the northern Marshalls. It is interesting to note that Taylor found it abundant on Rongerik, Rongelap, Bikini and Iniwetok. The collection from Arno consisted of scattered plants among lichens scraped from the trunk of a breadfruit Artocarpus sp. tree.
The collector noted the propagulae to be particularly conspicuous on this moss when collected. |
Splachnobryvm indicum C. MULL. , Linnaea 37: 174. 1871-73. (SEE: Figure 2.) Ine Village, ine Island, Horwitz 9427B.
Distribution: India, Java (1).
Scattered plants among Ectropothecium monumentorum growing "on top, sides, and even some on bottom of shady moist stones near a cistern."
The Philippines have not been included in the distribution of this species because there is consideratle doubt that the plant which Bartram cites (1: 126) is 5. indicum. If the Philippine plant is a distinct species, then this record leaves a larger gap in distribution than any of the other species cited herein.
Bryum nitens Hook, in Wall., Cat. n. 7592 et Icon. pl. rar. t. 20, fig. 6. 1837.
(SEE: Figure 7.)
On vertical layer of soil lining main path across Jilang Island in open coco nut grove. Horwitz 9105, July 17, 1951.
Main roadway of Ine Village, Ine Island. Horwitz 9312, August 3, 1951. Distribution: Nepal, Ceylon, Java, Bali (8), Fiji.
The extension of range indicated by this collection may not be as great as shown here since there is considerable question whether this species and Bryum ambiguum Duby (known from the Philippines) are distinct from one another. E. B. Bartram (correspondence) suspects that Fleischer's (5) remark about B. nitens, "Diese Art zeigt so geringe Unterscheide von voriger, dass ich sie nur als Abart auffassen kann. Sie is sicher nur eine kleinere Varietat von Br. ambiguum, von dem sie sich mehr durch eine Summe kleiner Merkmale, als wie specifisch unter- scheidet" was well justified.
aul
Ectopothecium monumentorum (Duby) Jaeg., Adumbr. 2 (1877-1878) 523.
(SEE: Figure 6.) On ground in a coconut grove, Jilang Island, Horwitz tz 9103, July 17, 1952." Ga2 damp stump and on outer husk of coconut, Malel 1 Island, Horwitz 9426B, 9427, G42), PNPUSt 45,1951. 4.
On shady moist stones near a cistern, Ine Vilidee! Ine Island, Horwitz 94374, August 9, 1951. a ee
On decaying wood at eastern end of Ine Island, Horwitz 9670A, August 19, 1951.
Distribution: Sumatra, Java, Timor, Philippines, Carolines (1), Gilberts (4).
This moss appears to be common in the southern Marshalls from the number of collections Horwitz made. It was fruiting abundantly and was found in a variety of habitats. This was the only species of moss in the whole collection with sporophytes (capsules). :
LIVERWORTS (HEPATICAE) Riccardia multifida (L.) S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 683, 1821.
Growing over damp coconut husks and occasionaily also on inner husks. These were growing in the shade and on under surfaces. Malel Island, Horwitz 9425A, August 4, 1951. 0
Distribution: . Worldwide (6).
Although cosmopolitan, this is the first record of the species from eastern Micronesia. See also next species.
Riccardia sp.
Found growing on a piece of outer coconut husk by HOTELS 9426C, at Malel Island, August 4, 1951.
While the literature is not presently available for a definite determina- tion, the material seems to be placeable close to the widely distributed Ric— cardia sinuata (Dicks.) Trev. The thalli of this material and this svecies (6) have no unicellular margin more than one cell broad. R. multifida has a 2- to 3-celled unistratose margin along with additional: differences in the sporophyte. The more dependable sporophyte characters were not available in our sterile ma— terial.
Microlejeunea sp.
On an old inner coconut husk found lying in a damp situation, Malel Island, Horwitz 9426D, 9428, August 4, 1951.
Ma
This is a large and widespread tropical genus, the previous Heunast report being from Ponape by Glassman (7).
Lejeunea sp.
Growing on the trunk of Cocos nucifera, Jilang Island, with various other bryophytes and lichens, Horwitz 910ZB, July 17, 1951.
In abundance but only on dampest parts of the same breadfruit tree trunk which bore the Calymperes tenerum collection, 9310, Ine Village, Horwitz 9316, August 3, 1951.
The closest locality knovm for this genus is Yap, from which Stephani (10) reported two species.
Ptychocoleus sp.
Growing on upfacing side of a slanting coconut tree from the ground level up to about the 4 or 6 ft. level where it thinned out, Malel Island, Horwitz 9429A, August 4, 1951. On the same island and date on a coconut husk, Horwitz
94265.
This may prove to be a species distinct from all sofar described; as a search of the available literature has revealed nothing close to it. However, here as with the previously cited lejeuneoid species, the limited library sources immediately available have necessitated a temporary reservation of judgment con- . cerning the specific identity.
DISCUSSION
The only bryophytes known to be common to both the Gilbert and the Marshall Islands are Calymperes tenerum and Ectropothecium monumentorum. These two are species of wide Indomalaysian distribution.
It is particularly interesting to note that although a goodly number of in- vestigators have reported on moss collections from the Carolines, most of the species found on Arno Atoll have not been reported from there. Perhaps the rea- son that these species have not been reported from the Carolines lies in the fact that the greatest interest in these islands has been centered on the rain forests of the higher islands and the moss strand vegetation, which is similar to that of an atoll, has been grossly neglected.
There are several good reasons for believing that the Carolines are the route of migration for the Marshallese species. Nearly all of the mosses cited here are found in the Philippines. The strong storm winds of the fall and win- ter months are widely experienced coming from the west and southwest and it seems reasonable to assume that these winds might at some time or other carry spores as far as the Marshalls. There is a possibility, too, that the early in- habitants of these islands unwittingly carried spores or propagulae with them during their migrations.
hr
There is a possibility of comparatively recent introduction by traders and copra boats, but if this is so then one is led to wonder why these mosses are not found in the Gilberts which are isolated by. the winds and © ‘currents from the Marshalls. It seems logical that some boats would visit both groups. ©
Until more is know of the distribution of bryophytes in the Pacific one can propose only such broad hypotheses, to be later substantiated, modified or rejected on une basis of more GenpE ete ane orneur On
A search was made for liperatune So oentne ethnic uses of bryophytes in Micronesia. None was found. It is hoped that future workers at Arno will in- quire into the ethnototany of the different bryophytes and ‘that such work will be facilitated by the treatment which has been presented here.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bartram, E. B. 1939. Mosses of the Philippines. Philipp. Journ. Sci. 68: 1-423, 29 plates. 2. 1945. Pacific Outpost Mosses. The Bryologist 48: 45-53.
3. Brotherus, V. F. 1902. Laubmoose in G. Volken, Die Vegetation der Karolinen., . « High. “Hot.“danr. 31! 7450-453.
4. Dixon, H. N. 1927. Gilbert Islands Mosses. Journ. Bot. 652254257
5. Fleischer, M. 1902-1922. Die Musci der Flora von Buitenzorg. 1729 pp., 266 plates, Leiden.
6. Frye, T. C., and Lois Clark. 1937-1947. Hepaticae of North America. Univ. Wash. Publ., VI(1-5): 1-1018, illustrations.
7. Glassman, S. F. 1952. List of Non-vascular Plants from Ponape, Caroline Islands. Amer. Midland Nat. 48(3): 735-740.
8. Horikawa, Y. 1949. Extension of Range for some Species of Bryophytes. Journ. Jap. Bot. 24: 140-144.
9. Paris, E. G. 1904-1906. Index Bryologicus Ed. 2. Paris.
10. Stephani, F. 1902. Lebermoose in G. Volken, Die Vegetation der Karolinen. Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 31: 450.
11. Sukari, K. 1943. Bryoflora von Micronesia I & II. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 30: 1-143 249-257.
Lem eager, We ha 4950." Plants ef Brkint, 218 pp., 7S plates. .Univ. of Mich. Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
I |
|! i | |
=
——
es
Figure 1)-
Figure 2)
Figure 3)
Figure 4)
Figure 5)
Figure 6)
Figure 7)
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES
Leucophanes glauculum (9669) ..
The pale color, hardly green at all, and the leaf size distin- guish this species from other Arno species.
Splachnobryum indicum (9437B).
Note that the midrib does not quite reach the leaf tip, there: often being a group of specialized cells between the leaf a and the tip of the midrib. aces :
Calymperes hyophyllaceum (9425B).
The leaf tip shapes are variable and of relatively little Peeaemic value. The leaf bases with their conspicuous areas of large cells, called cancellineae, and the nature of the leaf margins are much - more dependable taxonomic characters. In this particular species, opposite the cancellineae and again near the apex, the margin of the leaf tends to have a little tooth opposite each marginal cell - (denticulations).
Calvmperes tenerum (99108).
See notes under figure 3 and in text under the other species of Calymperes. The margins of the leaves in this species are nowhere denticulate. Note the difference in shape of the cancellineae.
Calymperes mollucensis (9422). See notes under figure 3 and in text under the other species of | Calymperes. The dotted lines just within the leaf margin indicate
the extent of a thickened strip. This is absent in the other two Arno species.
Ectropothecium monumentorum (9103). Most of the leaves of this species are sickle-shaped. There are
only very small traces of midrib thickenings near the base of the leaves.
Bryum nitens (9312).
The midrib extends right to the apex of these usually strongly con- cave, boat-shaped, green leaves.
HO
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
No. 26 Scorpions on Coral Atolls by Marie Héléne Sachet
Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council
Washington, D.C.
November 15, 1953 }
SCORPIONS ON CORAL ATOLLS
me Marie=Heléne Sachet
With their very limited fauna, coral atolls are remarkably free of "dangerous animals", There are of course no large mammals, and no carni- vorous or poisonous reptiles except for an occasional sea-snake, The only macroscopic animals which can be described as dangerous in themselves are sharks and poisonous fish, the Conus shells, and the black-widow spider (Latrodectus mactans) introduced on Kwajalein. With these and a few other exceptions, the animal pests have mostly a nuisance value, or cause painful, but not dangerous stings, Such are ants, wasps, scorpions, centipedes, flies, mosquitoes, and even birds when they form large colonies. Some of these pests, of course, are dangerous as carriers of disease-—producing organisms, or parasites, A few can be rather harmless individually but dangerous if met
with in great numbers: the Portuguese Man o!War for instance causes such pain-
ful stings that encountering a great many of them may render a swimmer panicky and quite helpless,
Two kinds of animals occur on most atolls which inspire often un- warranted fears in the various parts of the world where they are found: these are the centipedes and scorpions, A few species of the former cause very painful bites, and some scorpions are even deadly, but the dread they inspire is often out of proportion with the actual danger, The species of these which occur on atolls are not at all dangerous, and not too abundant, either. However, it seemed worthwhile to assemble the information on one of these groups, the scorpions, as a zoological summary with practical aspects,
In spite of their formidable appearance and their sting, scorpions are rather fascinating for various reasons, The group is rather homogeneous, and all scorpions look much more alike than different spiders, for instance. They are often found in pairs, the couple apparently going about together for a long time before fertilization takes place, at which time they go through a remarkable courtship and what is called a mating dance. These have been described in great detail by J. Henri Fabre, for the scorpions which live in the south of France, and observed in various other species. After these extraordinary performances, fecundation takes place, and the female eats up the male, at least in some species. When the young are born they look just like adult scorpions, and are simply enclosed inside a thin membrane. They break out of it at once and promptly climb onto the back of their mother. They are rather easy to observe thus, because they are white and almost trans-— lucent, while adult scorpions are yellow to black.
These are just a. few of the peculiarities of these animals, Another, of a different order, but very interesting, too, is that scorpions are one of the oldest groups of living animals: in other words, fossil scorpions are found in very ancient (Silurian, about 400 million years old) deposits, and look astonishingly like modern scorpions. These must be extremely successful animals, therefore, which is only partly explained by the fact that they have few enemies...
e/e
This brief account is no. attempt to exhaust the interesting facts known or suspected about scorpions, but aims to render the idea of these animals less formidable and srbapigs its petore ce them in more detail.
“Scorpions are db nehoaiey ‘aeees means that they Belone to the shyly: of invertebrates: whose legs are jointed and whose skeleton is an external armor of chitin, Other, arthropods are crustaceans, for’ instance, and insects, The group to which seorpions belong, and which corresponds in the classification to crustaceans or insects is that of the Arachnida, Scorpions are one of the groups, of arachnids, spiders are another; there are several others, which are not so commonly known, ethiough one contains the mates and ticks.'
The different. groups of meee oeade are classified miget at aceoruinees
to the number and arrangement of their legs. and other appendages, Aeaalinaacy have only four pairs of legs, insects three, and crustaceans more. Besides their walking legs, scorpions have twa pairs of pincers. The larger pair looks rather like the claws of a crab or lobster and are used to seize food, usually living prey, and bring it to the smaller pincers, which have the role of jaws and teeth, and tear up the food before it is swallowed,
ne Arachnids, once recognized by the number of their legs, are further classified according to the nature of their’ bodies. While insects have three main parts to their body, arachnids have only two, the cephalothorax, which contains the mouth, eyes and various other organs, and to which are - attached all the legs, and the abdomen, The soft rounded abdomen of the . spiders is quite different, for instance, from that. of the scorpions, which is macc up of segments, terminating in a narrow tail with a last segment modified into. 2, SLUM a wy yen : ene
_ More Wlpaceowe ‘of eeenoileas than their pincers,. therefore, is their tail with its stinging apparatus. The tail ofthe scorpion, which © is really a narrow part of the abdomen, is made up of 5 narrow segments and. followed by a sixth, which is the sting, It is very mobile, and‘is usually curved back above the rest-of the body bringing.the sting near the front of -- it, its extremity pointing forward; the scorpion stings by driving the tail’: aaa the sting forward and ypward or upward and backward. This sting is pear-' shaped, with a curved needle-like extremity. In the pear-shaped -part..are ny two venom glands, and they open by two small holes slightly below the. extremity of the curved:needle: this arrangement functions just as:does a — hypodermic, in which the sharp needle point breaks the skin and protects from: obstruction the opening of the needle which is just behind it, “
The venom produced by, the glands. and injected by the sting varies with different species; not al] have-been: studied in detail, -In.regions of © the world which happen to be. well-equipped for research; and rich in deadly. scorpions, much work has been carried on to analyze the venoms, understand their toxic effect, and find remedies, In North Africa, for instance where ©. there are various dangerous species, including one which cayses some deaths every year, the Pasteur Institute in Algiers has been studying these scorpions for many years, and is manufacturing anti-scorpion serum, in just the same way that sera are prepared to help victims of snake bites. In Arizona, the Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory of the State College, at Tempe, studies the local deadly scorpions, and advises on treatment of stung persons (Stahnke, 1949),
o/
3S |
The effect of a scorpion's sting is quite independent of the size of the species, some of the deadly scorpions being rather small; the giant scorpions of tropical Africa, Pandinus, which can be as much as 180 mn. long and the Palamnaeus or Heterometrus of the East Indies which come next in size, are relatively harmless, They must be rather formidable animals, and some Pandinus species have formidable names: P. imperator, and j P. dictator, However, the scorpions that occur on atolls are rather small, . and relatively harmless,- Their sting is painfull, but the pain vanishes after some hours, leaving no after-effects,
Generally six families of living scorpions are recognized by zoologists, and atoll scorpions represent two of them. In the family Scorpionidae (the i same to which the above-mentioned giants belong) is the species Hormurus | australasiae (Fabr.); the family Buthidae is represented on atolls by t Isometrus maculatus de Geer, two species of Lychas (Archisometrus of Kraepelin), and perhaps others, It must be borne in mind, of course, that on atolls, scorpions are not very abundant or conspicuous, and that, since “collecting there has’ almost ‘never been carried on intensively, there must be many atolls } from which they: have not been recorded, though present. There also may be more species present on some atolls, especially those near high islands or | continents; for instance a species of lychas is known from the Duizend Eilanden, ) which are very close to Java, just outside the Bay of cedesaia sy and not, so far as records are available, from other atolls ‘ |
vm) | Family SCORPIONIDAE. 1. Hormurus australasiae (Fabr.)
Scorpio australasiae Fabr. Syst. Ent. 399, 1775) by
we ¢ . ‘ * ‘ cr MMMICIee NIP
This scorpion has a wide range of occurrence,-and is fourid all over the islands of the Pacific, Malaysia and some parts of the Indian eros
It is found in the woods and coconut Sianbataones ‘most auenare who record it do not indicate the exact habitat, but we have some information on the specimens collected in the Marshall Talands by Fo Ro Fosberg in 1951-52. One, on Lae Atoll, was found in the crotch of a split; ‘partially decaying breadfruit tree, Otherwise, the specimens were observed under sticks and stones, in coconut trash, and especially under the bark of dead logs, in'‘coconut plantations and in.the various types of forest’. and scrub found in the Marshalls. Also in the Marshalls, on Arno, Usinger (1953, p. 27) cites scorpions as predators in the fallen log stratum of the canopy woodland community. This most probably refers to Hormurus, It.certainly would be interesting to have more information on this scorpion, and its habits: Does it burrow at all, or just hide‘ under loose material? Does it give chase to prey, or, as reported for Mediterrariean scorpions, mostly wait with extended pincers, ready to grasp an unwary spidér..or other animal? Does it exhibit the same. poterse behavior? i
i
Chamisso (1821, Pe: bee paeened ‘ends under Lae name scorpio ' australasiae from the Marshalls "of which the natives did not appear to be afraid; and the sting of which, according to Kadu {his informant_/, produces a local swelling which is of short duration", Since then, all reports agree
wih | BEEP ISITE BGS IS SE SILOS, ADR TSLASAGEBE SUS UD OI STOR STON ESAS SU SS OMMERPASOT CRT ELSAOTAT, dy SAGES Saks be he S! BASS RSOSMSRERBETERT AAU ES <7 ARE BS PANSUAEADINUNINS Tea RGTaLESE 1g 1eSa0 BNSROGY BORE aa sEsELay ss 54:
wd
lyme
that the sting of this scorpion is we to be’ Searete ai Mickie : se hone
Marshall Islands: : die ee
id .
~ Ailuk Atolls Tae Atoll, Lae Islet,’ ‘taesan, Telct, ees Islet; Wotho Atoll, Wotho, "Yslets Ujae Atoll, Bock Islet; all collected ty FR. Fosberg in 1951-52.
Ailinglaplap Atoll, Bigatyelang Islet, collected oy H. K. Teunee in 1946; other specimens, collector unknown , collected in aes
ue no, ‘Atoll, collected by J. We Wells in 1950.
SBikind Atoll, Romuk Islet, collected. by Bi P, Schultz in n 19K6s Nama Tiel: and Bikini Islet, areues by Je P. E. Morrison in. 196s.
Caroline Islands: ;
Ulithi Atoll, ‘Mogmog fdige: pan gh bee Atoll, ‘Hare Tslets thicwore Atoll, Nukuoro Islet; all collected by He Ke Townes. in i946. -
“Dysmotu ‘Islands: eases aed
Raroia Atoll, Ngarumaoa Islet, Cael Islet, opaicen” Islets all collected by J. P, Ee Morrison in 1952,
The above records are hitherto unpublished, and were kindly furnished © by Dr. E, A. Chapin, of the U. S. National Museum, who identified the specimens and transmitted the information in time to include these many recent records: in this paper, His help and advice are here, gratefully acknowledged. The species had been previously recorded from the Marshall Islands: by Karsch 1881, p, 15 (as Liocheles australasiae), collected by O. Finsch, and my Chamisso (see. above) .
Ellice Aslands:
““Punafuta, Pocock 1898 p. 323 (see discussion of Buthus browi caunaten see Rainbow, below); many specimens were collected by Sollas and Gardiner during ° the Funafuti survey and boring works; Kopstein, 1921 p. 136 (specimens caer cd available in Dutch museums, but no record of collection).
Ellice Islands, Buxton, 1927 p. red collected by O!Connor, determined by ‘Hirst. :
Duizend EHilanden:
Edam Island, Kopstein 1921 p. 119, 135.
Noordwachter Island, Kopstein 1923 p. 185, 186.. -
Kopstein in his 1921 paper, p. 135, also records this species from "Kokos Inseln", Unfortunately, this is not quite clear, and although it may. be supposed that this refers to Cocos Keeling Atoll, extending the range of
ie
led
the species to this Indian Ocean atoll, it may well also be one of the many other Cocos Islands, especially those in the Andaman Islands,
Family BUTHIDAE 2, Isometrvs maculatus (de Geer) Scorpio maculatus de Bae Meme Hist. Ins. 72346, 1778)
Unlike the above species, this scorpion is found in and around mee habitations, and is transported by human agency, It is not native to the islands. It has managed to travel all around the world, and is found practically everywhere in the tropics, as shown by the following atoll records:
Marshall Islands:
Karsch, 1881 p. 15, collected by 0. Finsch; Schnee, 1904 p. 406, determined by Dahl,
Jemo Island, collected by F, Re Fosberg in 1951, on the floor of the only house on; this:tiny island, which is uninhabited, except when visited occasionally to prepare copra. Only one individual was seen,
Fhoenix Isjands:
Canton Island, Van awalnnentnde, ei pe 303 "found occasionally in buildings",
Pratas Island (China Sea):
Cambridge 1871 p. 617 (as Iychas maculatus); collected by Collingwood, who says (1868 p. 27) that small Soumiloie were abundant in an abandoned Chinese temple on Pratas,.
Cocos-Keeling:
Hirst, in Wood-Jones 1910 p. 366. Wood-Jones, p. 306 says that wounds are painful. and dreaded, but not fatal. Gibson-Hill, 1950, p. 101: "Plentiful on all the Jarger islands, Local name, Kala Jengking. It does not appear to be seasonal, In the plantation it is found at the base of the fronds of the coconut palms, and under the piles of fallen nuts, On Pulo Selma and Pulo Tikus it occurs fairly freely in the buildings. It moves about mostly at night,"
Seychelles: Bird Island, Hirst, 1913 p. 32. Dennis Island, Hirst, l. ce Astove Island:
Hirst, Le Co
o/s
Maldives:
North Mahlosmadulu Atoll, Fainu Islet, Male Atoll, Huhule Islet, Suvadiva Atoll, Havaru Tinadu Islet, Peeock, 1904, pe 798, as I. suropacus (ie), eoldicetad by J. S. Gardiner,
Minicoi, pecoe Lo Ge
3. lLychas Beueatus Koch seeks 12: pp. 3, 163, 1845. Lipticated as Ta: ecu on pe 3, «Scie typographical error
Cocos Kéelasi ing Atoll: Kopstein, 1921 p. 122,
14. lLychas mucronatus (Fabr,) ~ (Scorpio mucronatus Fabr. Ent . es a oe i798)
Duizend Eilenden:
Edam Island, Kopstein 1921 Pe 123.0 Be Buthus brevicaudatus Badnbows Musenale Mus. Mem. 3: 107, 1897... Ellice Islands: or Sian ‘Fynafuti Atoll; Rainbow, created this new name for Funafuti scorpions, but Pocock, 1898 p- 323, severely criticized this determination, and placed the specimens in the species Hormurus australasiae, see above, Rainbow's plate, however, does not much resemble Hormurus:australasiae, so this — modnet ton mey quite possibly be incorrect,
These are aved datas records of identified scorpion. species from atolls. In addition to these, there are a number of records of "scorpions", from various other islands; some of these for instance are found in 1 da Ste es native names for various atolls. is Gilbert Islands:
Abemama Atoll: Woodford, 1895. pe 347 records a small wera
Onotoa Atoll: E. T. Moul (ined.) | eons cued: some scorpions among packitig cases (probably Isometrus, possibly just introduced). iy
Caroline Islands: Kapingamarangi, Miller, 1950 p. 6 records a small scorpion. Nukuoro, Eilers, 1934 p. 193 cites: native panes
Ifaluk, Burrows, 1949 p.- 19 says that Roun was heard or seen of scorpions.
Marshall Islands:
=A Pe De eS
Kraemer and Nevermann 1938 p. 297 give native names. Luangia and Nukumanu Atolls: Sarfert and Damm, 1929, p. 31, give native names, .
There are undoubtedly other such records of scorpions scattered throughout the non-systematic literature on atolls, and it is hoped that more of them will become known, and that more collections and determinations will help clarify them. New records are always’ interesting even though of the same species as they enable us to follow the spread of the species, especially that of Isometrus maculatus, to new islands. | Only a great many observations on atolls can lead to such results. As mentioned above, in addition to distribution records and specimens, data on the biology and ecology of scorpions on atolls are meager and such observations would be a valuable addition to our knowledge of atoll biota. To make such sofort ton of maximum value, it should always be accompanied by specimens.
As this summary was nearing completion, Dr, Waldo L. Schmitt kindly . called attention to a very recent paper on scorpions (Vachon, 1953)... It consists of brief general ‘notes on their biology, and has no mention of atolls, but has a short list of useful references, and is illustrated with some beautiful color plates, including one of the giant African scorpion (see Pe 5 of this paper), and several of one of the deadly North African species, showing various postures, A lengthy, and much-praised work by the same author, "Etudes sur les scorpions", published by the Pasteur Institute of Algiers in 1952, wifortunately could not be consulted,
Bibliography
Berland, L. Les Scorpions. . 1-201, Paris, 1945.
Burrows, E. G. The people of Ifalik..., CIMA Report 16: 1-222, 1949 Ene.
Buxton, P. Ae Scopionoidea: in, Insects of Samoa S: 13, 1927,
Cambridge, O. P. Notes on some Arachnida collected by Cuthbert Collingwood Esqe eeeeee Proc. Zool. Soc, London 1871: 617-622, 1871.
Chamisso, A. von
Remarks and opinions of the Naturalist of the Expedition; in, Kotzebue, A voyage of discovery .... 3:1-318, London, 1821.
o/s
Collingwodéd, C. Rambles of a naturalist cecnes 1-445, Hondeny 1868,
Eilers, A. Inseln um Ponape...: in, Thilenius, Ergebnisse der Stidsee “Bapeaition, 1908-1910, II B 8: Tue. Hamburg, 193.
Fabre, Je He Souvenirs baromeioeigness IX: 229-343,: Paris, 1905.
Fabricius, J. C. Systema Ee ere ee HD.
Supplementum entonologiae systematicac. 1-572, 1798.
Geer, C. de ns Memoires ‘pour servir 3 Lthistoire aS insecteSeecee 7: 1-950, Stockholm, Taay
Gibson-Hill, C. A. Papers on the fauna of the ‘Eee egene Islands. Bull, Raffles Mus. 22: 1-298, 1950.
Hirst, Se Eecond report on the Arachnida. ee. Trans. Linn. SoCs Zorle Tr, 16: 31-37, 19136
Karsch, Fe Arachniden und Myriopoden Mikronesiens. Berlin Ent. Zeitschr. 25: 15-16, 1881,
Koch, C. Le Die Arachniden,. 12: 1-166, Nurnberg, 1845.
Kopstein, P. Fe Die Skorpione des THdeciiet fa lsched Archipels, mit Grundlage der | in Holldndischen Sammlungen, vorndhmlich des Rijks-Museums in ‘Leiden, vorhandenen Arten, j : Zool. Meded. Rijks Mus. Leiden 6: 115-144, 1921.
Liste der Skorpione des A een Archipels im Museum Ary Buitenzorg.e - Treubia 3: 184-187, 1923.
a
v
Krdmer, A, and Nevermann, H,. MM ted ' Hanne Ralik-Ratak (Marshall—Inseln): in, Thilenius, Ergebnisse der Sildsee Expedition 1908-1910, an II B ll: 1-304, Hamburg, 1938.
Kraepelin, K, Scorpiones und Pedipalpi. Das Tierreich 8: 1-265, Berlin, 1899.
Miller, R. E. Health report on Kapingamarangi. Part I. 1-60, / Washington_/, 1950 (mimeographed) .
Focock, R. I. list of the Arachnida and "Myriopoda" obtained in Funafuti by Professor W. J. Sollas and Mr, Stanley Gardiner.... Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. VII, 1: 321-329, 1898.
Arachnida: in, Gardiner, The fauna and geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes,
2: 797-805, 1904.
Rainbow, W. J. The Arachnidan fauna of Funafuti. Mem, Austral. Mus, 3: 103-124, 1897.
Sarfert, E, and Damm, H,. Luangia und Nukumanu: in, Thilenius, Ergebnisse der Stidsee Expedition 1908-1910. II B12, 1s 1-244, 1929.
Schnee, P, Die Landfauna der Marshall—Inseln, Zool. Jahrb, Syst, 20: 387-412, 1904.
Stahnke, H. L. Scorpions. 1-23, Tempe, Arizona, 1949,
Usinger, R. L. and La Rivers, I. The Insect Life of Arno. Atoll Res. Bull. 15: 1-28, 1953.6
Vachon, M, The biology of scorpions, Endeavour 12(46): 80-89, 1953.
Werner, F,.
Scorpiones, Pedipalpi: in, Bronns, Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreichs, 5 (IV) 8: 1-490, Leipzig, 1935.
o/6
Woodford, C. Me i Te ARE TSS ASAE The. Gilbert Tsdandisi3) ir : (CER CE a, v4 Geogr. Jour. 6: 325-350, 1295, Ha
Wood-—Jones, F, Coral and atolls. ANS BE ge 1 gl . 1-392, London, 1910, i i we toh EA en |
Zwaluwenburg, R. H. van The insects of Canton Island. AU iat da Pe ae | Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc. 11: 300-312; 193. inna Data dea :
aes EE ae << ase = = = = SSeS = = == = tt SS ees Se SS EEK So ay == ~ = ———— <a == =e a ———— —_—— —— ee = SSS
a8 Se ee Pees age. PS RINT,
We | Bee iar LTS
No. 27 January 31, 1954
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN
27. Nutrition Study in Micronesia VAN HSOW ja i by Mary Mural Uf ea Se ers i \ FEBI18 (954 } I LIBRARY A i ee — Issued by THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council Washington, D. C., U.S.A. ih FPUERSTS ere rarer es or oe eer ee SE pTnTECereeylT bE TECTIEE ME PEEUBIES SCE LESFIECEITIC LE LE CIT eC BOBS Ot Pt RRC peer Tey EOS ETE CEE PETS SER CE TEED Oo PETE ESTES SETS PELEEBEE ESE IDL ae ee
ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN il
27e Nutrition Study in Micronesia
by Mary Murai
Issued by
THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD National Academy of SceLences--National Research Council
.. Washington, D. C.
January 31, 1954
~ ACKNGILIDGHENT
It is a pleasure to commend the far-sighted policy of the Office of Naval Research, with its emphasis on basic research, as a result of which a grant has made possible the continuation of the Coral Atoll Bes) of the Pacific Science Board. Fi
It is of interest to note, historically, that much of the fundamental information on atolls of the Pacific was gathered by the U. S. Navy's South Pacific Exploring Expedition, over one hundred years ago, under the coimand of Captain Charles Wilkes. The continuing nature of such scientific interest by the Navy is shown by the support for the Pacific Science Board's research programs, CIA, SUI, and ICCP, during the past six years. The Coral Atoll Program is a part of SI.
The preparation and issuance of this Noe 27 Bulletin was assisted by funds from the South Pacific Commission as well as from Office of Naval Re- search Contract No. N/fonr-291, Task Order IV.
The sole responsibility for all statements made by authors of papers in the Atoll Research Bulletin rests with them, and do not necessarily represent the views of the Pacific Science Board or the editors of the Bulletin.
Eaitorial ‘Stare
F. R. Fosberg, editor Me H. Sachet, assistant editor
Correspondence concerning the Atoll Research Bulletin should be ad- dressed to the above c/o Pacific Science Board National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue, Ne We Washinetony25.De Cos) Ue Se Ae
NUTRITION STUDY IN MICRONESIA nas gle |
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS IN LOICRONESIA |. Pacific Science Board F
National Research Cowcil -
Mary Murai Honolulu, Hawaii August 1953.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Acknowledgmen ts e e e © ° e s e e e ° e e e e e e ° ° ° e e s e A: Introduction Ob3 Se (S tive e e e e e e e e ° e e e e e e e e e . e e ° ° e ale Proc edure e ° e e e e es e e a e e ai e e e e e ° e e ° e alk Part I - Nutritio Study on Majuro Island, Marshall Islands .. ik A list of larshallese foods with a brief descee pace in English of each food e ° e e e e ° e ° e ° e e ° ° e e 2) Foods available in the Iarshall Islands for nae Marshallese ~-+ 8 Nutrition Survey in Majuro Village, Majuro Island, Marshall Is lands eo e e e e e e e se e s e ° « e . es e e e e e e e e ° ° 12 Results Infants, wider Jone year ‘of age. ea ko ota? Haeeeterate 20 Marshallese subjects of Majuro village, cece one through Seventy years, «© «© « «se # 4 lie ete coiheenteme PAY Cham dren e e e ° . e e e e eo e e e e a e e e ° e ° e e e 5h Males e ° e e s e ° e e . a ° e e e e ° e e ° e se ° e se 60 Femal es ° Co) e e e e s ° e ° e e e e ° e ° 67 Classification of See in eteclan £0 NRC Reconmended Dietary Allowances . 5 .). 64) oe a eee 73 DUSCUSSMOM Ser sehe eae ye se WLS alg ela Shin et ey oto eee Th summary . . Sain elo Sei kc. 0 82 Bee ommend elon based on Ghose studies) ase ie Mens 86 Food items commonly consumed by Marshallese studied In this dvetary SULVEYV ss. snes) ce Oe i tole. & ee ee 86 Dietary Studies of Three liarshallese Schools Dietary study of female students of the Marshall Christian Training School, Ronron, Marshall lsWands / <7: eo 97 Dietary study of anacnies at the Mission School, Mauro Village, Majuro Island, Marshall Islands .... as Ja) Dietary study of students of the Marshall Island Theor mediate School and the Teacher Training School ..... 126 Summary of daily quantities of various nutrients per person in the three Marshallese schools and comparison with Nabionaliresearch Council aliiowances’% 2 . . 3s) aimer ue 149 Food Habits and Dietary Patterns in Outlying Sections of the Marshatil \samds).\ ; jes) ie, 6.) ter tel teiiey Veh eels alte ah vonage rev al Part II - Nutrition Study on Udot ace Truk District, Eastern Caroline Islands .... . . : 177 Planninie and onsaniigans the: surveyg. sac snes te lel leu ame 17 Nutrition survey . : 178
A list of Trukese foods eek a i opiet f description 3 in ‘Baglish Of ‘each food) ici. erent le nike ' Bid 179
ag
page maerane Proseaure Of INbEYWIEW ibis b see a es «ee 184 Pee eet as 6) em ae ee ele! ee ak 8; sys ey ipo 185 Treatment of dietary survey data and assessment of the ISLES TEAL al Jeeeg EUS 7 Riegel yh uth taker RR Rc Ne ae el 188 Results Daily quantities of various nutrients and comparison with National Research Council allowances for 290 Trukese Seis wee ae eee eee et Wee eee ce ne ong 188 eleven = Sto Seventa omedee aor. We eas ge ae. % 242. Series, ee ee mee eT ee See ee ee 8 215 PRES atmal ial ta es se een ete Ge Guneataone) se ee Oe a 215 BemalesS 9 s:is « « at ah me a i ‘ Bt ata | Oat at eisai oes aaa 216 Classification of averares of nutrient intake in relation to NRC Recommended’ Dietary nae. sw ck ks ea. 218 i. Dus) CUIS(S oT Cla Wiggin te al Ma Mle iat ie adheh gh A ee Se ee aie ee 219 Food items commonly consumed by Trukese studied in this Paigracy SUEY y's ts” Cte emma ee ees. 5, ee eee, ve 22k Breadfruit and Taro sfc ts19) 70 ilar a ea a Nee ee 2e3 BeeOMMIENGauUONS «os ss e's ween s poss 2 cs: e,s ss as 22h See we eee es ae. Se SRS ko a eo a es Mes ee oe 22h
PART III - A Comparative Study of the Nutrient Intakes of the Marshallese of Majuro Village, Marshall Islands, and ‘the Trukese of Udot, Truk District, Caroline Islands 225
BeSLUS ike wae
Children a @. 8:0) @° & @ @ @ CPA Ree Sys, Oho, Lee hie “Srp err mre e E 225 Males ° . e ° . ° \ e e e ° ° ° . . . . e ° e e . e ° . . . 228 Females . pm e . . . e ° . ° . * s e . « ° e e * ° ° gan
Classification of averages of nutrient intake of Marshallese and Trukese subjects in relation to NRC recommended
dietary allowances eee ee ee eo en ok 23k SSM wi ine ae) ly Re, he) OR Tes Co aawanahe’. oii den Sikh: « 236 Summary es * e . e- @,)@ re e e . ° e . . e . s . e ° ° s e . e e Zan eee eateries (ai a! cel Mieeileneaametes, aiken ee 8" wl be 238
LIST OF TABLES
Table i al Foods available at the Island Trading Company and prices as of March, 1951. s 8 2 Indigenous wage scales for the Marshall Islands. _ 9 3 Dietary Studies of the ilarshallese of llajuro Village,
Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands, Daily Quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances. 22
BPMs Ht. |
Table
10.
aE
12)
13
1h
stata
Dietary study - Majuro Village, Marshall Islands, Summary of daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with National Research Cowmcil Allowances. Children and Hales.
‘Dietary study - Ilajuro Village, ifarshall Islands.
Summary of daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances. Females.
Classification of averages of nutrient intake of one- hundred-sixty-one Marshallese of llajuro Village in Relation to NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances
Weights and Heights of Marshallese subjects.
Comparison of average weights of Marshallese subjects with weights of Americans given for each age group in the table of recommended daily allowances, National Research Council.
Calculated Calorie requirements for iarshallese of various. ages living in the Marshall Islands and NRC Peconmended Calorie Requirements «
pee tane study of students at Marshall Christian Train- ing School, Ronron, Marshall Islands. Daily Quantities of various nutrients per person and
“comparison with Ne Ore Btls see Council Allowances.
Dietary Seu of students at Ilission menee™s Majuro Island, Marshall: Islands. -
Daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances.
Dietary study of students at the Marshall Island Inter-_
mediate School and the Teacher Training School, Uliga, Marshall Islands,’
Daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with National Research. Council Allowances.
Summary of daily quantities of various nutrients per
person in the three Marshallese schools and comparisons
with National Research Council Allowances. Females.
Summary of daily quantities of various cuecteate per
person in the three liarshailese. schools: and comparisons
with National Research Council Allowances. Males.
Page
22
65
U3 (2
76
79
103
116
134,
150
160
iv Table Page 15 Classification of averages of nutrient intale of one- hundred-sixty-three students of three Marshallese
schools in relation to NRC recommended dietary allow- ances o 170
16 Dietary Studies of the Trukese of Udot, Truk, Caroline Islands. Dietary Quantities of Various Nutrients per Person and Comparison with National Research Council Allowances. 189
17 Dietary Study - Udot, Truk District, Caroline Islands. Summary of Daily Quantities of ae Nutrients per Person and Comparison with National Research Council _ Allowances. Children and Males. 213
18 Dietary Study - Udot, Truk District, Caroline Islands. Sumary of Daily Quantities of Various Nutrients per Person and Comparison with National Research Council Allowances. Females. 217
Ne Classification of averages of Nutrient Intake of 290 Trukese of Udot, Caroline Islands in Relation to NRC Recomnended Dietary Allowances. 21g
20 Weights and Heights: of Trukese Ren saete. 220
21 Comparison of Average Weights of Trukese with Weights of Americans Given for Hach Age Group in the Table of Recommended Daily Allowances, National Research Comecil. 220
22 Summary of Daily Quantities of Various Nutrients per Person of the iarshallese, Majuro Villiage, llarshall Islands and the Trukese, Udot, Caroline Islands and
comparison with NRC Allowances. Children. 226 23 Summary of Daily Quantities of Various Nutrients per
Person of the Marshallese, Majuro Village, Marshall Islands and the Trukese, Udot, Caroline Islands and
Comparison with NRC Allowances. Males. 229 2h Summary of Daily Quantities of Various Nutrients per
Person of the Marshallese, Majuro Village, Marshall
Islands and the Trukese, Udot, Caroline Islands and
Comparison with NRC Allowances. Females. 232 25 Classification of Averages of Nutrient Intake of Mar-
shallese and Trukese in Relation to NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances. 235
Vv ACKN Od LEDGITEN TS
This study was wider the direction of Professor Carey D. Miller, Head, Foods and Hig ec Department, University of Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station.
I wish to acknowledge with sincere gratitude the assistance so generously stiven me to make this nutrition Seslee ste possible.
My appreciation to the Pacific Science Board of the National Research Council, the Office of Naval Research, the Navy Administration of the Trust Territory both in Pearl Harbor and the Marshall Islands, Administration of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Military Air Transport Service, Uni- versity of Hawaii, Bureau of Hunan Nutrition and Home Economics, United States Department of Agriculture, and also the South Pacific Commission for the grant to assist in the completion ‘of this Project and the final duplication of the resulting report.
Special ‘thanks to Mr. Harold Je Coolidgé,. Executive Director of the Pacific Science Boards Miss Ernestine Akers, Honolulu Secretary of the Pacific Science Board; Miss Carey D. lfiller, Professor of Foods and Nutrition, Univer- sity of Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station; Lt. Cmdr. D. D. Heron; Adm. S. C. Ring, Governor of the Marshall Islands and Staff; Lt. Cmdr. F. W. Avila and Staff;'Lt. D. E. Blevins, Commanding Officer of LST 611 and Staff; Lt. Cmdr. V. Le Murtha; Lt. R. A. Schauffler; Lt. L. B. Urquhart; Lt. Philip S. Bell; ‘nbs Cooks Lt. (jg) Fr. Johnsons bt. *(je)"F."k. Clark? it. (ie) Wee. Bodedaaume: Ifre Carol M. Buterbaugh, Chief Hospitalman, U.S.Ne; Mr. Leonard KE. Mason,
‘ Associate Professor of Anthropology, University of Hawaii; lir. J. HE. Tobin; lire R. Crider; Miss Eleanor Wilson; iir. Dwight Heine; Langlan, Iroij of lfajuro Islands Ilieus Armer; Amata Kabua; Litarjkits; teachers, students, and others who assisted in the study. ¢
In the Caroline Islands, special thanks to Captain S. C. Anderson; Captain R. De Law, Jre3 Mr. Willard C. Muller and Staff; Mr. Frank iiahony; Dr. Clark Richardson; ilr. Nicholas Gianutsos; iir. Charles Rechefus; If. John Spivey; Dr. Pelsang Kim; Chief Petrus; Mr. Max S. Mori; Mr. Ayster Irons; lfiss Anna Jederer3; Aten, Amina, and the people of Udot atoll who assisted in the study.
In Honolulu, Hawaii, special thanks to Dr. Harold St. John, Dr. Donald W. Strasburg, Dr. Robert W!. Hiatt, lir. James Ifilne, }iss Elsie Ishida, lirs. Beverly Hirai, and my mother, the late lirs. Hisa lfurai.
In Japan, Major General William E. Shambora, Chief Surgeon, Headquarters, Far East Comand, Medical Section and Staff; Dr. Kunitaro Arimoto, Director, The National Institute of Nutrition, Tokyo, Japan and Staff.
To the many aeners who helped to make my stay on Majuro and Truk so plea- sant, I wish to express my gratitude and appreciation.
NUTRITION STUDY IN NICRONESTA
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVE:
To make a study of dietarv habits and nutritional status of inhabitants and the nutrient composition of basic plant and animal foods in at least tio islands with somewhat contrasting conditions for the purpose of developing ef- fective methods of gathering nutrition information necessary for promoting educational and developmental programs conducive to improved conditions.
PROCEDURE:
Two islands were selected for which some medical, anthropological or other pertinent observations had been reported under the CIMA or SII programs.
Majuro in the Marshall Islands was selected as representative of a "low" island and Udot in the Truk district, Eastern Caroline Islands, as a "high" island.
The field activities in the Marshall Islands covered the period from January 18 through liay 29, 1951. The field activities in the Caroline Islands covered the period from June 27 through October 8, 1951.
Samples of native foods for nutrient analysis were also collected at this time. The samples were sent to the Foods and Nutrition Department, University of Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, where Professor Carey D. liiller directed the chemical analysis of the samples.
PART I NUTRITION STUDY ON MAJURO ISLAND, MARSHALL ISLANDS
Majuro Atoll lies 7 degrees 05! North, 171 degrees 23' East, about ten miles West of Arno Atoll; it is 21 miles in an east and west direction. There are more than 50 low coral islands, of which Majuro island, the largest, stretches along the southern side for a distance of about 1) miles.
I. Planning and organizing the survey.
Before beginning the actual collection of data for the nutrition survey, time was spent in acquiring some knowledge of village life, gaining coopera- tion of inhabitants, becoming familiar with local foodstuffs, and local methods of preparing and cooking meals. At the same time, an attempt was made to learn enough of the native language to be able to understand simple terms which would be helpful when gathering data for the survey.
ee ee a
ag a
This preliminary work was done on Uliga, where it was possible to contact liarshallese officials and persons of authority and influence on the locality from whom help could be obtained, as the success of the survey, to a large de- gree, depended on obtaining such cooperation.
The teacher trainee group at the school, who had come from many islands of the Marshalis, helped by volunteering irformation on Marshallese terminology for foods, preparation of foods and description of foods used in native villages.
A list is given of Marshallese foods with a brief description of the foods which are produced locally.
A LIST OF MARSHALLESE FOODS WIT! A BRIEF DESCRIPTION IN ENGLISH _- OF EACH FOOD |
MARS HALLESE ENGLISH
Bop Pandanus fruit.
Eroum Boiled or baked pandanus.
Mokan - Gooked and preserved pandanus fruit.
Beru : Pandanus and arrowroot flour caoked togethers as a dessert. Bia
Joanrong Pandanus juice.
iMokanrul Meat of baked ontoileds pan cans fruit mixed
with grated coconut and baked.
' Jakaka hredded fresh pandanus dried for ucla one week and used as a confection..
Kobeo Raw pandanus fruit.
Ma Breadfruit. Xonjin Baked breadfruit-=roasted and skin scraped off
before eating.
voljej Green breadfruit is taken and stored wmtil it ripens. Both core and skin are removed. Hole is filled with Coconut milk from grated coconuts. Hole is covered trith part of core, then bread- fruit is wrapped with green breadfruit, leaves tied with pandanus roots and baked about half an
hour. Kobjar a Baked breadfruit in um or pit. Jokkob Breadfruit porridge--both core and skin are re-
moved. Breadfruit is cut into pieces, boiled, mashed, mixed with coconut milk. Salt to taste.
i nis
MARSHALLESE
Ainbat ben
Bwiro
Jankwin
Manaka jen
Ieok
ae
“” Breadfruit is cored and skinned. Cut into”...
pieces and boiled, After it is boiled once, —
me it: is: 2 Eg Acne with coconut milk,
» Preserved whoadteitt
1. Skin is removed, core taken out and bread— fruit eutvinbothal?. fs
2. Then breadfruit is put in a basket and left overnight anchored in the waters,of..°, the lagoons
3, Breadfruit is“taken from the lagoon and-- left overnight on the ground to soften,
he’ Breadfriit’is*then put in a pit, covered ;
with dried breadfruit leaves and left for. about six months.
ee j) _ Bat when lies
Made rom Mi Jawan bebeded) breadfruits. ‘Take
while green from tree and let ripen. Take out seeds, core, ahd skin, Put breadfruit in. large coconut leaves which are woven into coconut
“*: leaf baskets; "Put baskets in earth oven:and.~_
« leave’ overnight. Take out, unwrap, flatten out and leave out in sun to dry, After bread-
~ fruit is dried; roll and wrap in pandanus leaves
and tie with sennit twine into rolls,
Made from eebiisricth fermented breadfruit of the seedléss variety of Artocarpus incisus « 3 Preserved breadfruit is taken from the pit and “.dvinpressed into:slabs in "coconut cloth!!..: ... (fibrous, mesh—like stipule of the coconut tree):and left out in the sum, It is usually: left for one week until it becomes very hard, never exposing it to fire; How to eat maria— .. kajen: The slabs are broken up into small pieces and soaked overnight in cold water,
The breadfruit is then washed and cleaned several times-in-water. The mixture is put..in a cloth bag and the water strained out. The preserved breadfruit is put on a board and °° gently kneaded until it becomes iia ha
At thie stage, breadfruit can be mixed with
‘ coconut milk and jekamai (coconut syrup) ,.
wrapped in fresh breadfruit leaves and put in
the earth oven to’ bake for two hours, ©
MARSHALLESE
Cbubwe
Bitro
Ni Jekaro Mere — : Iu
Waini
Jakamai Pisin,
Jekajeje - PAs
Amedama
Lukor Iutir
Jiab
Ren sin ns Jimanin =~ ° Bolom:
Al
Kabra |. Ainbat Kabrah
Fry kabran ©)"
Jenkunin kabran’
Jukjuk in kabran
ENGLISH
After kneading until breadfruit becomes. sticky, mix with coconut milk, wrap in coconut leaves and roast in open fire,
After kneading, breadfruit with added water can be boiled. Water with sugar is boiled, then the breadfruit mixture is dropped in the
- boiling water and boiled for two hours, The finished product resembles dumplings.
Coconut. Coconut sap. Meat of the immature coconut,
Embryo of the sprouting coconut.
_ Meat of the ripe coconut.
Teuero: boiled fon four hours or more until it becomes a syrup (coconut syrup).
“.” Jekaro boiled for half an hour,
Coconut candy made from a mixture of jakamai _ and ‘grated coconuts, »
Iu and jekaro made into a pudding.
Baked“, .~:
Heart of the palm tree, Water of the drinking coconut. Fermented coconut,
Inmature embryo of the sprouting coconut.
‘Coconut milk,
Banaria °
Boiled banana,
Fried banana.
Dried banana halves.
Boiled bananas in skin. Mashed and mixed with grated coconut meat, Sugar or jekaro added for flavoring.
MARSHALLESE »
Kabran emmer Umum kabran Tik
Iukor
Tik wnum Fry iik
Iik sol
Tik monaknok
Tik kalal
Soup in ilk.
“Tik jin
Iik jinbatat
Shiokara Rac
Bao umum Bao ainbat Soup in bao
Taktake
Fry bas Koniekin pik Ainbat pik Umum pik
Fry pik
ENGLISH ~
Ripe banana, Baked banana in um,
Fish,
Raw fish eaten with grated coconut ‘meat, lines,
and salt, Baked fish in umum,
Fried fish with salt for flavoring...
. Preserved fish.. Head and bones are removed .
from fresh fish, Salted overnight, Dried
. for about one week. Dried fish baked in umum and dried for one week. Boiled. tesh with coconut milk.
-Boiled fish soup with breadfruit, arrowroot big ie 1b nae ‘rice and in.
“Fish corked on heated rocks.
Smoked fish——coconut husks and dried pandanus husks are used for smeking.
Salted entrails of tuna or bonito eo | Chicken,
Baked chicken,
Boiled chicken,
Chicken soup with breadfruit, rice and iu. |
Boiled chicken with green papayas cooked with soy sauce and. sugar, rita
Fried chicken,
Pork.
Boiled pork,
Baked pork.
Pork fixed with shoyu and fried,
MARSHALLESE
Pik sol
Wor
Ainbat wor Jinkar wor Moj-
Ainbat in moj Unum in moj Moj kalal Taraj
Ainbat iaraj _ Umum iaraj faraj killel
Jukjuk in iaraj
Mokmok Likobla
Benben an mole
Jup in mokmok Keb jeltak
Jamkok
Banke Ainbat in banke
Bere banke
Jokkob in banke Rimuj
Barulep
au ENGLISH
Preserved peek (salted) » Lobster,
Boiled labster,...--
Lobster socked on heated rocks, Eel
Boiled eel.
Baked eel,
Boiled eel with coconut milk,
Cyrtosperma chami.ssoniso
Boiled Cyrtosperma chamissonis.
Baked Cyrtosperma chamissonis,.
Cyrtosperma chamissonis boiled in coconut milk,
Mashed Cyrtosperma chamissonis with grated ‘coco- nut meat.
Arrowroot flour,
~ Arrowroot flour. and jekaro mixed together.
Arrowroot flour, jekaro and grated coconut meat o
Arrowroot flour, iu, fish and coconut milks Arrowroot flour, crackers, and jekaro.
Arrowront flour with grated coconut meat from semi-ripe coconuts and baked,
-Pumpkin.,
Boiled pumpkin,
Pumpkin is boiled and mashed, Grated ‘coconuts and sugar are added and the mixture is baked,
Boiled pumpkin. and rice, Mollusk baked’ and toiled,
Coconut crab: boiled or baked on hot rocks.
Pa
MARSHALLESE ENGLISH
Raj-sol . am Whale preserved with salt. Ke-umum hf 2 a Pea ee a ~« Baked’ porpoise. Wont | aLoxlve ooh Badtaey baked and aesder ay yest kwettainbet ond unum... Ostopus,, boiled and baked. Seine wale
Ninet (Ratak) or ; | Net (Ralik) Squids, boiled and bakede 0 felt aahe
Lupenwon - =- ainbat fag en wae Bees dee SORE «aaa defescaea? _ ss ‘and: unum va > Turtle eggs, baked. end boiled.» aay Sak “Grower ewly “ge ity my oe qecdetyse elie: last EpRyORd bid 26) abo: Athy SenSharkg eked and boil eas." rPoneds, seeker Jojo i aA ay on. a ait Flying fish. ott. NEE 4 2 : Rt ‘
Mamas sionwins.dhan onay-e Sardine, ATS “tent - ty ; Panini.
Tou | s Hie ety ieaiewietas
Mon Fi eee Rede fe he , eeBwoblne muna ah .
Lajabil Bonito,
ct Shellfish.
Be jiwak cay OT nackte |
ee ion White —
Ak De Frigate, bird. aoa: :
Haas ade SAG eee.
on Pe Pe Sea gull. / 5
ee : Raich Pigeons: .' wile i
alae CNET ned Grey: tern... ® =
ibaa aie a Black tern: t.
Jekar upd hy, Black tern. en tae
Se Rail. |
Ride eagal ana ha Aiea anceps a Kot kot ey ve Paes eee ;
Loa eatin a Sit i Hig) We Shale )
Ran (Ratak) or eet Rofionbat (Ralik) Wild duck.
ae FOODS AVATLABLE IN THE MARSHALL ISLANDS FOR THE MARSHALLESE
Stores were visited and prices: collected during the time spent on Uliga, Marshall Islands to gather information about food purchasing and food availability. Imported food for native consumption was available at the Island Trading Company of Micronesia, Marshallese wholesalers, and retailers. A few organizations bought in small quantities from firms in the United States, but the Island Trading Company supplied the main bulk of food going to these stores.
The Island Trading Company of Micronesia had as its purpose the pro- motion of economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants of the Trust Territory. The company fostered the development of private in- dustry and*conmerce, adjusted the policies to encourage such developments and withdrew from any particular district or activity as soon as private enterprise demonstrated it could adequately meet the needs of the people.
Only a standard list of items were stocked. The items were bought from the Naval Supply Center, Naval Procurement Office, San Francisco, or other Island Trading Company channels, Purchases were made anywhere in the world, when it was to the best advantage to the company.
In general, sales prices were intended to cover all costs private enter= prise would have to bear. Food supplies were sold to wholesalers, retailers, and directly to consumers; each group had a different set of food prices.
TABLE 2 FOODS AVAILABLE AT THE ISLAND TRADING COMPANY
AND PRICES AS OF MARCH, 1951
FOOD WHOLESALE =-——RETAIL CONSUMER
per lb, per lb. per lb. Rice 12 cents 12 ‘cents 13 cents Sugar 13 cents 14, cents 15 cents Flour 9 cents 10 cents 11 cents Coffee 62 cents 66 cents 72 cents Biscuits 33 cents 35 cents 38 cents Corned beef
(12 oz. can)
Tea
57 cents/can
$1.13
61 cents/can
$1.19
66 cents/can
$1.30 Mh
= Jum
TABLE 2
“TNDICENOUS WAGE SCALES FOR THE MARSHALL ISLANDS
Group (1) Apprentices (minimum rate) 0.11 cents/hr.
‘Group (IT). Unskilled ° (minimum rete) 0.17 ceaeatian Group (III) Semiskilled (minimum rate) Oat eents/hr. Bie Group (IV) Skilled _ (minimun rate) 0.25 cents/hr.
oe ae Supervisors oe (minimum rate) 0-29 peaayer. Group (VI) Professionals (minimum rate ) 940 per meaeh
- .Am-average unskilled laborer receives about 428 per month. $90 per. month is considered the highest salary paid to a Marshallese in Uliga,
Salary. scales were low and food prices were comparable to the priges (eens in the oe States where the WREY scale is higher.
i erate of Marshallese worked for the Civil Administration Unit for ae end a half days of the week, Sunday was observed as the Sabbath and.
_ the Marshallese did not work. They spent: ‘most of the day in church. Food
for Sunday was cooked .on Saturday suigin dae in Darrit and Kwajalein where they cooked on Sunday. :
4 The author: asked about the possibility of fishing to help augment the food supply but the Marshallese felt ‘that they did not have the time to fish and, therefore, must depend on imported canned foods. ‘They found that getting sufficient food was an economic hardship, especially the protein foods,
such as canned meats, canned fish and evaporated milk.
Marshal le se stores
pe were six retail stores and eeaen bakeries owned by Marshallese. The most important one was the Majuro Trading Association, a Marshallese co- operative composed of about 200 members. Some of the prices as of March, 1951 Bie ES: by ae Association were as follows:
Rice "ali | 11 cents/1b.
Soy sauce | | | $1. 27/eal.
Blige | 13 once 4 he eae pilot cracker =. ) 83 conts/1b.
a Ne | i“ iy .: “9 cents/1b.
-10—
Canned beef stew with vegetables 59 cents/#2 can
Canned evaporated milk (when available) ° 23 cents/#2 can The storekeepers felt’ that the demand always exceeded the food supply.
Other food establishments
There were sixteen bakeries, two restaurants and a delicatessen. The bakeries sold eight-ounce loaves of bread for ten cents and an eight—-ounce doughnut for five cents. They usually baked four times a week, and sold about fifty loaves a day, Bread is baked in large kerosene drums set in the coral lengthwise and the top cut away, The section which is cut out is covered with a piece of tin, A fire is made by using coconut husks:and wood for fuel, Loaves of bread are put on sheets of tin and placed over the fire,
One restaurant was visited, The menu for lunch consisted of. canned beef, stew, boiled rice, coffee, and bread, Fish, pork or any other available food is substituted. for the main dish, The daily menu does not vary except for the main dish, A plate lunch cost twenty five-cents or fifteen dollars .on- a monthly basis, . Three meals were served every day of the week, Raw food Supplies were bought from the Island Trading Company store once a month. Breakfast. was served from 5: 00 a, m. to 7:00 a, mo; lunch from 10: ee aia Me to 12s 00. noon; and supper from 3230 De Me to, 7s 34 Es Me
Studying foods eaten, how they were eaten, ind native oe sveeleen at the school kitchen and at the labor camp, where they had communal cook-— houses, - gave more knowledge of diet patterns of the Marshallese,:-It was
'. learned that large round doughnuts were used fréqueritly and large amounts
of sugar were always ‘taken with tea, Such information was valuable later when interviewing subjects. For: example, when téa was mentioned in: the. dietary intake records, the amount of sugar taken could be asked and such information could be included which might otherwise have been omitted. Finding doughnuts in the diets of the Marshallese was a surprise at first but later on inquiry found that they were a common and popular food in most of Micronesia,.. To. have doughnuts mentioned in their dietaries became -a common occurrence, -
N field trip to the outlying districts furnished information abot food consumption away from a naval base, foods available, types of utensils used, and other methods of food preparation.
Although a number of reports by others had been read, they did not fumish sufficient information to enable one to begin without making a preliminary survey « This preliminary residence in the community at Uliga was invaluable in that the knowledge gained about the manner of life, religion, and politics provided the necessary background information on habits and beliefs of the Marshallese,
The investigator had gained enough knowledge to be able to identify foods at sight, and had enough experience to estimate amounts of foods taken,
as most utensils used in the village were brought from a central store and they were alike, Thus, without changing the routine procedures of the villagers with experimentation, deviations from the normal were kept at a minimum so that data collected would be indicative of their daily normal consumption of food, The survey went along smoothly and was completed in
a shorter time due to preliminary planning, thus keeping the.natives . interested in food intake records which were kept willingly.. This would have been difficult to do if the survey had been an unduly Th, dull, -and tedious procedure,
Other factors poneidered in_ planning and SE the survey
Le Unit of survey .
In Micronesia, a family unit is different from one in our society, A household was selected as a unit for the survey, A group who lived and ate together, usually consisting of blood relatives and relatives by adoption, was considered a household group and comparable to our family unit.
2. .- Sampling .
The selection of subjects was influenced by availability of families, distances to be cnvered, attitude of people towards the survey, and presence of leading members of» the community who were in close touch with people and could explain to them the’ PEnhaee of the survey and intreduce them to the investigator, ‘-
_. No statistician was available to give, technical aid in choosing the sample, An attempt. was made to get a representative sample of families from the Jolab district of Majuro village who were within walking distance according to the random sampling. plan,; giving.each group the same chance of being included. Roads were good and well marked so that one could travel distances by foot. Various income groups were included, such as copra workers, storekeepers, the King and others, Many age groups, males, females, lactating women, pregnant women, and children were included, Most age groups were included but there were very few of the. intermediate school age group and young adults who were either at school in Uliga, or worked in government positions at Uliga, '
-3.- Time period
_ A seven day period was. chosen so that any variation in food patterns , would be included and thus give.a more accurate account of food intakes. Diet in Majuro village goes through seasonal changes as the harvesting of vegetable crops determined the food patterns, The.diet was monotonous and .; Showed very little ried to day shaatanaaiieale an se hte
lis ; ‘Hintemprecenit
“ws It was necessary. to employ: an. interpreter,. He was a local person who
knew local foods and sources from which they were obtained, He was familiar with the. cooking and eating customs of the community. This was necessary to detect any deviation.from normal which may.be introduced to impress the
wi lage chiefs with gifts to explain the pei and ae chen bi ne
oe
investigator, He was aware of local habits and beliefs concerning the preparation and cooking of food so was less likely than a stranger ta introduce resentment, As he was a local person, he was trusted more than an outsider and received a greater degree of co-operation from the group under survey; The techniques of interviewing and as relevant business was discussed before the survey was begun.
SI Record forms
Formal record forms were unnecessary. Informal records of the diary type were kept in bound notebonks in a uniform manner,
6. Publicity _
Many means of obtaining co-operation were used such as the news items in the base newspaper about the survey which was transicted.into Marshallese and released to people in Majuro village. Personal visits to the King and
information on to their subjects.
Tits, NUTRITION oS a MAURO AGE eNO ee MARSHALL ISLANDS —
yi "Preparation for survey an Majuro village vee
“ After the orientation period’ on Uliga was over, the: necessary equeient, canned foods and other items, were taken to Majuro Island by Coast Guard boat,
Miss Eleanor Wilson, Protestant missionary, accompanied me to Majuro village and introduced me to the community leaders. It was very: helpful to have Miss Wilsnn, who was respected and well-liked by the arpa opel Be eae the’ ee into a Pay Pratestant commun= eye
“ There were two political groups on Majuro Island and since. art groups were to be included in the ae ition eas with ou were made to both leaders.
All’this was done satirdiiy moming o Sabiirdae afternoon was devoted to thoroughly cleaning the native house, An office, housekeeping and working units were set up in the house. Scales, gram and pound, and other tools for research were ready for use. The interpreter was interviewed and hired.
Church services were attended on Sunday where everyone in the community met. During the service, Iwas introduced to the villagers and had an appor— tunity to talk to them about the. study and to become acquainted with ip taneal Monday morning visits to families were begun with the sight dane
Type and extent of waste was dinpesbieaeel in “detail ierom pilot on In order that the accuracy of household measurements could be checked, and to obtain further information about the degree of waste and edible pertions of common foods, a series of wéighings were taken of cammon native foods. For example, | data was necessary ‘about’ edible portion that could be obtained ‘from one pandanus ' ‘key, ‘the amount of drinking fluid from one immature nut, how much spoon meat ‘could be obtained’ from'one ‘coconut and other similar
aes
facts. Foods were measured and weighed on a gram scale. By determining these figures, the villagers could write dorm the number of various foods such as two pandanus keys or three drinking coconuts. For a few foods, which appeared most freavently on dietaries, the food eaten by a number of subjects was measured and weighed in order to arrive at a more accurate estimation of the serving size. Foods such as boiled rice, taro, and breadfruit were weighed to determine in grams the amounts recorded in household measurements of foods, such as a serving of rice in an enamel dish, coconut shell, or messkit; a roasted breadfruit, half of a bread- fruit, heaping tablespoon of sugar and other food items. As stated before, since most household utensils were alike as source of supply was the same, an average weight could be used for the various foods. —
Several types of fish were weighed after cooking to determine edible portions by removing wastage and refuse sucn as bones, head and entrails.
Households were visited at random once during their weekly period at meal time. One meal was weighed to determine in grams the amount of food consumed and also to check accuracy of food amounts as noted by subjects. Food was always served cold and it was divided as evenly as possible among the members of the household. Aduits took certain portions and children (6 to 10 years of age) got about half of the adult portion.
Recipes were made up for mixed cooked dishes. Many cooked food sam- ples were brought back to the University of Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station for chemical food analysis which were used in interpreting and calculating the diets.
Re Routine procedure of the interview
The number interviewed in a given time depended on the distances involved, as well as on the average time taken per interviev. The average number per day was about eight households. Household visits began about seven in the morning and the last visit ended about six at night. Lunch was eaten at home or with villagers when invited at meal time.
Daily visits were made to the households. On the initial visit, the investigator and household members became acquainted with each other. Several things were discussed, such as the procedure to be followed for the survey and the data to be recorded. At this time, the villager displayed dishes, spoons, cups, glasses, coconut shells and other utensils and equipment used in eating so that the investigator knew what they were reporting in terms of household measurements. Individual consumption was determined by recording individual food intake in terms of servings and household measures. Portions were given as edible portions except for certain foods which were given in numbers as mentioned before in this report. Information about the household was also recorded at this time. A day's record was to be kept in Marshallese and they were to be collected the following day. When records were collected each item was discussed in detail and anything of ambiguous nature was clari- fied and recorded in the notebook on the premises. Some reports were given verbally and these were recorded in the notebook, also. Each person in the household was interviewed separately. Iiothers were questioned about food in- takes of smaller children. All food consumed during the day including between meal feedings were recorded. Data was not recorded as meal to meal as the number of meals daily differed according to individuals. There were no set
sale | meal hours nor any definite number of meals consumed daily. Bye Data collected
ae Basic data 1. Kinds of foods eaten 2. Distribution of foods among meals and between meal feedings 3. Amounts eaten in numbers of foods, servings, or household measurements 4. Time period for seven days
b. Information about household 1. Composition of the family | a. Number b. Sex ce. Age to nearest year d. Other members of the household e. Names - all naies used in the past ff. Other relevant information 1. Pregnancy 2. Lactation g. Occupation
ce Example of a household for one week 1. Information about the household Members of the household (a) Male, 0 years old, husband, copra maker (bo) Female, 38 years old, wife, lactating wman (c) Female, 5 years old (d) Female, 3 months, 12 days old (e) Female, 70 years old, grandmother
2. Food data
0 years old man
lMionday Rice, boiled, white 700 grams Coconut, drinking (fluid only) al Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted }00 grams Fish, Mouij, baked (edible portion) 100 grams Tuesday Bread, white, fresh 8 ounces Tea, black 1 cup Sugar, white, granulated 2+ teaspoons Rice, boiled, white P 300 grams Jawit, baked (edible portion) 300 grams Taro, Kaliklik, boiled 500 grams Water i cup Milk, evaporated 2 teaspoons Sugar, white, granulated 2 teaspoons Wednesday Baru (little crab) ans 10
Rice, boiled, white 700 grams
ietearn: 5
Bread, white, fresh . Coconut, drinking (fluid only) Pandanus, raw
Tea, black
Sugar, white, granulated
Thursday Rice, boiled, white Fish, Kuban, baked Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated Coconut, drinking (fluid only) Pandanus, raw Coconut, mature, meat
Friday Fish, Net, baked . Bread, white, fresh Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated
Coconut, drinking, (fluid only)
Pig, roasted Breadfruit, Batakdak, roasted
Saturday Rice, boiled, white Breadfruit, roasted, Bukdrol Fisn, Mouij, baked Coffee Sugar, white, granulated
Sunday Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted Pig, roasted Doughnut Rice, boiled, white Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated
38 years old woman
Monday Rice, boiled, white Coconut, drinking (fluid oly) Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted Fish, Mouij, baked
Tuesday Taro, Kaliklik, boiled Coconut, mature, meat Tea, black Pandanus, raw
Wednesday Rice, boiled, white Taro, Jan, boiled
h slices
1 13
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Coconut, drinking (fluid only) Coconut, spoon ineat
» Pandanus, raw
| Deas: black
Sugar, white, granulated
Thursday Rice, boiled, white Fish, Kuban, balked Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated Coconut, drinking (fluid only) Pandanus, raw Coconut, mature, meat
Friday Fish, Net, baked Bread, white, fresh Tea, black i Sugar, white, granulated
Saturday Rice, boiled, white Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted Fish, Mouij, baked Coffee Sugar, white, granulated
Sunday Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted Pig, roasted Doughnut Rice, boiled, white Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated
5 years old female
Monday Rice, boiled, white Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted Salted fish, Mouij, boiled
Tuesday Fish, Jawit, baked Rice; boiled, white Sausage, pork Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated
Wednesday Rice, boiled, white Pandanus, raw Coconut, drinking (fluid only) Coconut, spoon meat Téa, .- black Sugar, white, granulated
DEIR eH U1
keys
cups teaspoons
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cups tablespoons
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Thursday Rice, boiled, white Fish, Kuban, baled Pandanus, raw Coconut, riature, meat Tea, black
“Sugar, white, granulated
Friday © -. Fish, Net, baked Bread, white, fresh Coconut, drinking (fluid only) . Pig, roasted Breadfruit, Batakdak, roasted
Saturday Doughnut Rice, boiled, white Fish, Mouij, baked Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted Coffee Sugar, white, granulated
Sunday - Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted Pig, roasted Doughnut Rice, boiled, white Tea Sugar, white, granulated
Baby 3 months, 12 davs old lfonday
Coconut, drinking (fluid only).
lilk, breast
Tuesday lfilk, evaporated Water, boiled Milk, breast
Wednesday Milk, evaporated Milk, breast
Thursday itilk, evaporated Water, boiled Itlk, breast Water, boiled
Friday Coconut, drinking (fluid mly) Milk, breast
Ww i>
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keys
grams
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ounces
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Saturday Milk, evaporated Water, boiled ifilk, breast Sunday Coconut, drinking (fluid only) Milk, breast
70 years old woman
Monday Rice, boiled, white Coconut, drinking (fluid pli Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted . Fish, ilouij, baked
Tuesday Taro, Kaliklik, boiled Coconut, mature, meat. Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated Pandanus, raw
Wednesday
Rice, boiled, white
Taro, Wan, boiled —
Coconut, drinking (fluid only) . Coconut, spoon meat
Pandanus, raw
Tea, black
Sugar, white, granulated
Thursday Rice, boiled, white Fish, Kuban, baked Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated Coconut, drinking (fluid only) Pandanus, raw Coconut, mature, meat
Friday Fish, Net, baked Bread, white, fresh Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated
Saturday Rice, boiled, white Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted Fish, Moui3 , baked Coffee Sugar, white, granulated
Sunday : Breadfruit, Bukdrol, roasted Pig, roasted Doughnut Rice, boiled, white Tea, black Sugar, white, granulated
‘ounces Ounces
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wie.
Treatment of the dietary survey data
From the detailed dietary record of each subject, the consumption of each food was recorded, tabulated and calculated.
The calorie value and the nutrients supplied by these foods were then determined by the use of food composition tables.
The tables used were as follows: Bat) BA “Food Values of Portions | Commonly used, ‘Bowes and Church (1) 2. - Composition of Foods, ‘UeSeDeAs Agriculture ‘Handbooks: Nog 8. (2)
ey Composition of Foods Used. in Far Eastern aie a ag Agriculture Handbook No. She, (3) | anh | ceceee
ho Feb Vatu of Portions Commonly Used, Hawaii heal eeae ect Bowes and Church, vas D. Miller, Marian Weaver and. Stella’
Luanne Fat, Mineral and Gitamin Content of South Pacific.’ , “Tsland Foods. Unpublished data on native foods, brought back from field by author, from the laboratories of Professor Carey ye D, Miller, Foods and Nutrition Department, University of <': i, eR Hewat 4 Agricultural Experiment Station, Honolulu; Hawaii o nee
The composite cooked dishes were converted back to raw weight betel valents EF ingredients used. - The calorie and nutrient’ eeimaee of. ne diet. were expressed on: a per person per: Gay basis.
Se z 2 rT hb be
Assessment, of adequacy of dicts | Ak ; Tallh’ To assess thé adequacy of etsy apostate we bdnd wig rege ae ised as the basis of comparison. The Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances, Revised 1948, Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council (6), weré’ used as standards,. Since definite figures were not given for: " phosphorus, Sherman's standards were used C7) s>" For’ fat allowances , 25%' of ° the’ calories intake for each age group was taken as suggested. in the report of Food oes ugee lace Levels in the United | seater nee and the ent Hey oe (8). DR alah
“s SPhe* average per’ capita intake for éalories na nutrients, | as. determined in the survey, was ‘compared with the average per capita re- commended allowances,
Comparison of the actual intake of individuals with these allowances indicates how closely intake approaches the recommended level for calories and various nutrients for optimuin health. Conclusions can then be drawn — as to which persons have a dietary status less favorable than others. .
Infants under one year of age.
Intake records for infants under one year of age were collected for eight subjects.- Calories and nutrient values-were, calculated whenever possible, however, intakes of breast..feeding were not recorded, Therefore, all calculations exclude breast milk intakes,
There were three female infants on a diet of breast milk and boiled water, One subject. was two weeks olds another,. one month old; and the third, six ‘months old.
‘One female infant of three months. had one "Polewine Wonder in her diet: breast milk, boiled water, evaporated milk, and drinking :fluid of immature coconuts, The daily intake was estimated at 81 grams of coconut fluid, 2 ozs. of evaporated milk diluted with 2 ozs. of boiled water, and 2 ozs. of boiled water, Calculated daily caloric.and nutrient values were as . follows: calories, 87; protein, 4 gms,; fat, 4.4 gmse; carbohydrate,
7.94 gms.3 calcium, 151,11 mgs.; phosphorus, 112.64 mgs.; iron, 0.19 mgs.; vitamin A, 219.4 I. U.3; thiamine, 27.4 mcgs.; riboflavin, 2050 ae HEEB; niaciny, 0. i MES 43) -and ascorbic acid, 32 mgs,
49 One pene ‘infant of six months of age had for a day's ie auel breadfruit. either baked or roasted, 16 mgs.; evaporated milk, 4 ozs, diluted with: 4 ozs, of boiled. water} coconut, sap, 56 gms.; boiled water » 4, 02S 03 and breast milk, Calculated daily caloric and nutrient values were as follows: .calories, 144.88; protein, 5.34 gms.; fat, 5.91 gmso; carbo= hydrate, 15.19 gms.; calcium, 180.94 mgs.; phosphorus, 155,10 mgs-3 iron, . O47 mgse; vitamin A, 292.6 I. U.3 thiamine, 53.34 mcgs.; ribet evan 280.93 megs.3 niacin, 0.54. mgs.3.and ascorbic .acid;. 12.96 Bee
One female infant of eight months had a diet of preset milk, evaporated milk, boiled water, boiled white rice, bread, tea with sugar, and soda crackers. Taking a day's intake, consumption was. estimated at.
4 ozs. of evaporated milk diluted with 4 ozs. of water; 4 ozs. of boiled waters 15 gms. of boiled rice; 15. gms, of white bread; 1 cup of .tea, with 1/2 teaspoon of sugar; and breast milk. . Calculated daily caloric and
nutrient values were. as. follows: calories, 84.72; protein, 1.76 gms»3_
fat, 1.05 gms.; carbohydrate, 16,63: gms; - calchun, 3.52: mgs.3 pheaPh onze 18, 56 mgs,.; iron 0,28 mgs.; vitamin A, 1.47 I. U.; thiamine, 30,41 mcegs.;.- nabotdavits 13. 65. HOES 33 ea 0. 23, nei and a brace of ascorbic. acid.
‘The daily eoeimaved consumption of one atl erent OF eight. Tonnes. breast milk; evaporated milk, 5 ozs. diluted with 5 ozs. of boiled water; boiled water, . 8 oZs3, and roasted: breadfruit, 30 gms... Calculated daily caloric and ‘nutrient values were as. follows: calories, . 278.43 protein, . . 12.89 gms.3; fat, 14.14 gms.; carbohydrate, 25,23 gms.; palevams 441.06 mgse; phosphorus, 363. 68 mgs-3 iron, 0,66 mgs.; vitamin A 713.1 I. U.; thiamine, 117.73 megs.; vAboRtayen: 660.0 58 Mees s$ ndariaad 0.76 mgs.3 ae 2.16 mes. ascorbic acid.
Greumalle,intaryios eleven months had.the following foods in his . dietary: breadfruit, roasted; boiled pandanus keys? coconut embryos;
-21-
drinking fluid of immature coconuts; boiled white rice; ripe bananas; white bread; doughnuts; soda crackers; limes; white granulated sugar; and baked or boiled fish. The daily estimated intake was as follows: breadfruit roasted, 350 gms.; boiled pandanus keys, 50 gms.; coconut embryos,150 gms., fluid of immature coconuts, 100 gms.; boiled white rice, 150 gms; and
ripe bananas, 60 gms. Calculated daily nutrient intakes were as follows; calories, 944.43; protein, 23.06 gms.; fat, 6,92 gmse; carbohydrate,
196.99 gms.; calcium, 180.81 mgs.; phosphorus, 435-36 mgs.; iron, 10.96 mgse; Vitamin A, 1239.98 I. U.; thiamine, 676.10 megs.; riboflavin,
524.22 mcgse; niacin, 8.56 mgs.e; and ascorbic acid, 17.26 mgs.o
Table 3 shows the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with NRC allowances of one hundred sixty-one subjects from the ages of 1 through 70 years of age.
There were forty-eight children, ages one through twelve years of age; forty-six males, ages thirteen through 70 years of age; and sixty- seven females, ages one through 70 years of age; included among the adult females are pregnant and lactating women, They are divided into different age groups, giving the number of subjects in each group, sex, range of each nutrient, number of subjects in each group, average NRC allowances and number below allowances and percent of subjects below allowances for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflevin and ascorbic acid.
Le Calories
For twenty-four male and female subjects, 1 to 3 years of age, the range was from 406 to 1204 calories, and the average per person was 823 calories. The average figure was 68% of the NRC allowances of 1200 calories. Twenty-two subjects or 92% were below allowances and two subjects or 8% were atove allowances.
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For twelve male and female subjects, 4 to 6 years of age, the range was from 471 to 1635 calories, and the average per person was 1096 calories. The average figure was 68% of the NRC allowances of 1600 calories. Eleven subjects or 92% were below. allowances and one subject or Be was _ abone the allowance. fe
For six male and female subjects, 7 to 9 years of age, the range was from 1095 to 1827 calories, and the average per person was 1269 calories, The average figure was 63% of the NRC allowances of 2000 calories, Six subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range’ was from 1193 to 1913 calories, and the average per person 1577 calories. The average figure was 63% of the NRC allowances of 2500 calories, Six subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For three male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 597 to 1910 calories, and the average per person was 1385 calories. The average figure was 43% of the NRC allowances of 3200 calories, Three subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For three female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 1469 to 1521 calories, and the average per person was 1487 calories, The average figure was 57% of the NRC allowances of 2600 calories, Three subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For two male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 1186 to 3294 calories, and the average per person was 2240 calories, The - average figure was 59% of the NRC allowances of 3800 calories. Two subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For four female subjects, 16 to 20 years, of age, the range was from 972 to 1703 calories, and the average’ per person was 1323 calories, The average figure was 55% of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories, Four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For thirty—three male subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 407 to 2187 calories, and the average per person was 1469 calories. The average figure was 49% of the’ NRC allowances of 3000 calories, Thirty-— three subjects or 100% were below allowances. .
For thirty-six female subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was. from 499 to 2483 calories, and the average per person was 1365 calories... | The average figure was 57% of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories, Thirty five subjects or 97% were below allowances and one subject or 3% was above the allowance,
For eight male subjects, 61 to 70 years of-age, the range was from. 6L to 1684 calories, and the average per person was 1302 calories, The average figure was 54% of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories, Eight subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of: age, the range was from 368 to 1829 calories, and the average per person was 1197 calories, The average figure was 60% of the NRC allowances of 2000 calories, Nine subjects
or 100% were below allowances,
For four female subjects, pregnant women, the range was from 714 to 1375 calories, and the average per person was 1013 calories. The average (3 figure was 42% of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories, Four subjects or 10% were below allowances. .
For eleven female subjects, Tetating women , the range was: eee 1081 to 2078 calories, and the average per person was 1695 calories. The average figure was 56% of the NRC allowances of 3000 ROLES ie subjects or 100% were below allowances
For the total group of one sed NSS eae s,one hundred | fifty-seven subjects or 97% were below allowances and four aa SENS or 3h were above allowarices,
2a Peet ben.
., For twenty-four male and female eae, Lista 3 years ‘of age, the range. was from 5 to 49 grams, and the average per person was 26 gms., The average figure was 65% of the NRC allowances of 40 gms, Twenty-one or 88% were below allowances and three subjects or 12% were above. allowances.
.For twelve male and female subjects, 4 to 6 years of age, the range was from 14 to 91 gms,, and the average per person was 42 gms. The average figure was 84% of the NRC allowances of 50 gems, Eight subjects or 67% were below allowances and four subi Reys or 33% were above allowances,
For six male and female subjects, 4 to 9 years of age, the range was from 39 to 64 gms., and the average per person was 52 gms, The average figure was 87% of the NRC allowances of 60 gms, Three subjects or 50% were below allowances and three subjects or 50% were above allowances ,
Saas six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 35 to 88 gms., and the average per person was: 62 gms, The average figure was 88% of the NRC allowances of 70 gms, Five subjects or 83% were . below allowances and one subject or 17% was above the allowance, ie
For ‘three’ male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 23 to 80 BMS oy and the average per person was 49 gms, The average PU AUS wii was 58% of the NRC allowances of 85 gms) Three subjects or 100% were below allowences.
For three female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was 52 to 69 gms,, and the average per person was 59 gms, The average figure was 74% of the NRCG allowances oy eS gms, Three subjects or 100% were below _ allowances, __
For two male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 42 to 142 gms., and the average per person was 92 gms. The average figure was 92% of the NRC allowances of 10 gms, One subject or 50% was below the allowance and one subject: or 50%. was above the allowance.
For four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 28 to 81 GME as and the average per person, was 52 ane The average figure
-1—
was 69% of the NRC allowances of 75 gms, Three subjects or 75% were below allowances ee one sg or 25% was is cena the eed
; aon thi rtyskbned male subjects, 21 ue 60 years of: age; “the” ‘range’ was from 8 ‘to 134 gms., and the average per person was 54 gms, The average’ figure was 77% of the NRC allowances of 70 gms. Twenty-seven subjects: or 82% were [poten al towaniees and six ‘subjects or 18% were above me
| zee ‘eit cee fone’ ep 21 6 60 years of age, the. rarige was from.8 to 85 gms., and the average per person was 47 gms. The averdge °— figure was 78% of the NRC allowances of 60 gms, Twenty-six subjects or” °° Ted % were a at ens eas ten or fae were ) abeve alt SWaneess
For. Laie ims migpectes: 61: to 70 - years ‘of age, the range was Or hon,: ae 23 to 50 gms., and the average per person was 42 gms. The average figure was 60% of the NRC allowances of 79 gms. Hight subjects or 100% were below allowances. wie
For nine female subjécts, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 13 to. 76 gms., and the average per person was 38 gms. The average figure y was .63%-of the NRC allowances of 60 gms, Seven subjects or 78% were below iy allowances and two or 22% were abcve allowances.
For four female subjects, pregnant women, the range was from 20 to 63 gme., and the average per person was 32 gms, The average figure was 38% of the os allowances of: 85 LIS 6 Hour subjects or >» 100% were below allowances.
For aiseah Penile ‘subjects, lactating women, the range was ip le 3h es 88 gems,, and the ayorage per person was 62 gms, The average figure was 622 — of the NRC i of 100 gis » ‘Bleven: ee or Oe were below ! allowances.
Pon Ene total group of one hundred sixty-one subjects, one hundred thirty or 81%-were below Pee ls and oe a ae or 198 were above aTieranens. ‘
9, Orirae
: For ig Cae male and female subjects, l’to 3 years of ages the range was from one to 37 gms, and the average per person'was 13 gms, “The average figure was 396 of the NRC allowances of 33 gins, Twenty-three subjects
ur 96% were below allowances and one subject or 4% was above the allowance, ~—
For twelve male.and female subjects, 4 to 6 years of age, ‘the’ range was from 8 to 50 gins., and the average ‘per person was 21 gms.: The average figure was 48% of the NRC allowances of 44 gms, Eleven’ subjects or 92h were below allowances and one subject or 8% was above the allowance.
For’six male and female subjects, 7 to 9 years of age, the Tarige was from ata to:36 gms., and the average: per’ person was 21 gms, The’ average ee figure was 37% of the ae a ie of oe BMS o Six Taha or ee were mak below allowances,
For six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 21 to 52 gms., and the average per person was 30 gms. The average figure was 43% of the NRC allowances of 69 gms, Six subjects or 100% were
oye.
below allowances,
For three male subjects, B to 15 years of age, the range was from 17 to 48 gms,, and the average per person was 28 gms, The average figure “was 31% of the NRC allowances of 89 gms, Three subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For three female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was 17 to 30 gms,, and the average per person was 25 gms, The average figure was 35% of the NRC allowances of 72 gms. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances, mee
For two male subjects, 16 tn 26 years of age, the range was from 5 to 60 gms., and the average per person was 32 gms. The average figure was 30% of the NRC allowances of 105 gms, Two subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 3 to 28 gms,, and the average per person was 15 gems, The average figure was 22% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms. Four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For thirty-three male subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 2 to 95 gms.,, and the average per person was 24 gms, The average figure was 29% of the NRC allowances of 83 gms, Thirty-two subjects or 97% were below allowances and one subject or 3% was above the allowance,
For thirty-six female subjects, 21'to 60 years of age, the range was from.2 to 50 gms,, and the average per person was 23 gms. The average figure was 34% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms, Thirty~five subjects or 97% were below allowances and one subject or 3% was above the allowance,
For’ eight male subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from
3 to 32 gms;, and the average per person was 16 gms, The average figure was ©
24% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms. Eight subjects or 100% were below allowances. mae ;
For: nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 2 to 34 gms,’ and the average per person was 19 gms, The average figure was 34% of the NRC allowances of 56 gms, Nine subjects or 100% were below allowances, sii
For four female subjects, pregnant women, the. range was from 2 to 19 gms., and the average per person was 8 gms, The average figure was 12% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms. Four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For eleven female subjects, lactating women, the range was from 10 to 44 gms. and the average per person was 27 gms, The average figure was 32% of the NRC allowances of 83 gms, Eleven subjects or 100% were below allowances, .—
For the total group of one hundred sixty-one undeated one hundred fifty-seven subjects or 97% were below allowances and four subjects or 3% were above allowances,
AZ = he Calcium
_, For twenty-four male and female subjects, 1 to 3 years of age, the j range was.from 48 to 647 mgs-, and the. average per. person was 229 mgs,, The.. average figure was 23% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. Twenty-four. Pi i subjects or 100% were below allowances, — Pde we
., For twelve male and female subjects, 4 to 6 years of. age, . the, range was from 112 to- 627, MESo 5 and the average per person was 303 mgs, The. average. figure was 30% of the. NRC allowances of. 1000. MES Twelve ae or 100% were below allowances,
For six male and female, subjects, 7 to 9 years of age, the range was from 129 to 1028 mgse, and the average per person was 534 mgs. The average | figure was 53% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. Four subjects or 67%.were. below allowances and two subjects or 33% were above allowances. Boyle
.For six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was. from. 112 to 1028 mgs., and the average per person was 486 mgs, The _. average figure was 40% of the. _NRC allowances of 1200 mgs. Six subjects. or 100% were below allowances,’ : 2
For three male. subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 188 to 509 mgs., and the average per person was 1400 mgs. The average figure was 22% of thé NRC allowances of 14,00 mgs» Three subjects or 1008 » were below allowances.
For three female subjects , 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 150 to 714 MES oy ‘and the average per person was 442 mgs. ‘The average figure | was 34% of the NRC, allowances of 1300 mgs. Three , subjects or 100% Were
- below allowances, ute
_.For two male subjects, 16 to 20, years of age, the range was from 289 to 699° MES o, . and the average per person was 489 mgs. The average figure was 35% of the NRC allowances of LAN0" MZ So Two, subjects or 100% were below. - allowances,
For four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 191 to 375 MZSe, ‘and the average per person was 277 mgsSe The average figure was 28% of the NRC allowarices, of 1000: ‘MES. Four subjects or 100% were ie below allowances,
For thirty-three male subjects, 21 to 60 years of ages the range was from 92 to 1029 mgs., and the average per person was 390 mgs; The average figure was 39% of the NRC. allowances of 1000 mgs. Thirty-two sub jects’ or | ‘97% were below allowances and one subject or 3% was above the allowance,
For thirty-six female sub jects, 21 to 60 years ‘of age, the range was from 112 to 799 mgs., and the average per person was 363 mgs, The average figure was 36% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. Thirty-six sub- jects or 100% were below allowances,
For eight ‘male subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, ‘the range was from 145 to 768 mgs., and the average per person was 308'mgs, The average figure was 31% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. Eight subjects or 100% were
a FN below allowances,
For nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 177 + ey 662 mgs., and the average figure was 375 mgs, The average figure was 37% of the NRC allowances of 1000 MES» Nine subjects or 100% were below allowances. yi
1 Lor four fomts x ene mm Saat women, the range was from 107 to 319 mgs., and the average per person was 205 mgs. The average an was 20% of the NRC allowances of 1500 mgs. Four subjects or 100% were:
‘ below allowances, .
For, eleven female subjects, lactating women, the range was from 213 to 667 mgs., and the average per person was 466 mgs, The average figure , was 23%.of the NRC allowances” of | 2000 MES Eleven subjects or 100% were . below allowances, siti ri
For the total group of. one hundred sixty-one. aah ieee one hundred fifty-eight subjects or. 98% were below allowances and three subjects or be were above allowances. 5
ee Phosphorus
For twenty-four male and female subjects, 1 to 3 years of age, the range was from 157 to 868 mgs., and the average per person was 404 mgs, The average figure was 40% of the NRC allowances of 1000 BER Twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For twelve male and female subjects, 4 to 6 years of age, the range was from 218 to 926 mgs,, and the average per person was 572 mgs.: The average figure was 57% of the NRC allowances of L000 nee e Twelve ‘subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For six male and female subjects, 7 to 9 Gone or aoe the range was from 466 to 1125 mgs. The average figure was 61% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs, Six subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years-of age, the range was from 481 to 1745 mgs., and the average per person was 925'mgs. The average figure was 77% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs, Five subjects or 83% were below allowances and one subject or 17% was above the allowance.
For three male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 302 to 752 mgs., and the average per person was 552 mgs. The average figure was 42% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For three female subjects, 13 to 15 years-.of age, the range was from 572 to 782 mgs., and the average per person was 655 mgs. The average figure was 54% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances. een Mia
For two male subjects, 16 to 20 years Ve Seesnnne range was from 673 to 2422 mgs., and the average per person was 117% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs,. One subject or 50% was below the alte Nanee and one subject or 50% was above the allowance,
“5=
For four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the rangé was from 360 to +911 MES o 5 and the average per person was, 867 mgse, The average figure was 72% of the NRC ‘allowances of 1200 MES » Two sub jects” or 50% were... below allowances and two subjects or 50% were above the allowance.
For thirty-three nade Uo jeeeel 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 299 to 178) MES o » and the average per person was 744 mgs, The average figure was 56% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs, Thirty subjects or 91% were Bion allowances” and vines subjects. or of were above allowances.
For thiety six female subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, ‘the’ ‘range was from 32 to 1704 MES oy and the average per merson was 661 mgs, The average figure was ‘50% ‘of the NRC. ‘allowances: of 1320 ‘mgs. Thirty=five or 97% were a allowances and one subject. or 3% was above the allowance.
For caene mats subaeeeel 61 to 70 years of age, the rangé’ was’ from 360 to 986 mgs., and the average per person was 601 mgs. The average figure was 45% of the NRC allowances of “1320 MES o Eight: ‘Subjects or 1002 + were below allowances. :
For nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was. from 313 to 1319 mgs., and the average per person was 582 mgs. The average figure was 44% of the NRC pl pOweneee. of 1320 MES« Nine subjects or 100% were below allowances. ii Pa atl Slay fetus
For four female subjects, ‘pregnant women, the range was from 287 to 810 mgs., and the average per person was 451 mgs. The average figure was 25% of the NRC allowances of 1800 MES « Four subjects or 100% were below allowances. ry a
For eleven female subjects, lactating women}, the range was from ce “ip 597 to 1097 mgs., and the average per person was 81,0 mgs. The average figure was 47% of the NRC allowances of Tce MS 0 Eleven subjects or 100% were below allowances. (i evi,
For the total group of one pts eat ig eet subjects, one hundred fifty-three subjects or 95% were perow allowances and eight sup lerte or 5% were above aot eae.
6a! Shion For twenty-four male and female Subjects, 1 to 2 years of Age, the range was from 1 to 12 mgs.e, and the average per person was 61 mgs. The ~ average figuré was 86% of the NRC allowances of 7 mgs. Fifteen subjects | __ or 62% were below:allowances, and nine subjects or 38% were’ above allowances. | For twelve male and female subjects, to. 6. years of age, the range was from 3" tol: mgs., and the average per person was & tgs, The. average ee figure was 100% of the NRC allowances of 8 MES » Four subjects or 33% were below allowances and eight subjects or 67% were above ‘allowances.
t
For six male and female subjects, famxoynie)) years of age, the range was from 5 to 17 mgs., and’ the average per person ‘was 10 mgs. ‘The average . figure was 100% of the NRC allowances of 10 mgs. Three subjects or 50%. were below allowances, and three subjects or 50%, were above allowances,
my a
For six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 8 to 15 mgs., and the average per person was 11 mgs. The average figure was 92% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs, Four subjects or 67% were below allowances and two subjects or 33% were above allowances.
For three male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 5 to 11 mgs., and the average per person was 8 mgs, The average figure was 53% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances. ; .
For three female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 6, to 12 mgs., and the average per person was 9 mgs. The average figure was 60% of the NRC allowances of 15 MES » Three subjects or 100% were below Samad et
Por two male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was sient 8 to 27 mgs., and the ‘average per person was 17 mgs. The average figure was 113% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. One subject or 50% was below the allowance and one subject or 50% was above the. allowances
For fare female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from © 5 to 17 mgs., and the average per person was 6 mgs. The average figure was 40% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, Two subjects or 50% were below allowances and two subjects or 50% were above allowances,
For thirty-three male subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 4 to 19 mgs., and the average per person was 10 mgs, The average figure was 83% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. Twenty one subjects or 64% were below allowances and twelve subjects or 36% were above allowances,
For thirty six'female subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 4. to 18 mgs., and the average was 10 mgs. The average figure was 83% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs, Twenty four subjects or 67% were below allowances and twelve subjects or 33% were above allowances,
For eight male subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 5 to 15 mgs., and the average per person was 8 mgs, The average figure was 67% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. Six subjects or 75% were below allowances and two subjects or 25% were above allowances.
For nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 5 to 28 mgs., and the average per person was 11 mgs, The average figure was 92% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs, Seven subjects or 78% were below allowances and two subjects or 22% were above allowances,
For four female subjects, pregnant women, the range was from 4 to | 10 mgs., and the average per person was 7 mgs, The average figure was 47% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. Four subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For eleven female subjects, lactating women, the range was om 7 to 17 mgs,, and the average per person was 12 mgs, The average figure was 80% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. Hight subjects or 73% were below allowances and three subjects or 27% were above allowances,
-),7=-
For the total group of one hundred sixty-one subjects, one hundred five. subjects or 65% were below yea owances and fie subjects or 35% were above ae ae
7 ‘ Pei A
wo: For twenty-four male and female subjects, 1 to 3 years of age, the range was from 29 to 6569 I, U., and the average per person was 14,04 I, U. The. average figure was 70% of the NRC allowances of 2000 I, U. Twenty subjects or 83% were below allowances and four subjects or 17% were above Sh TOWIRe ees
pe ee tne male and rena subjects, 4 to 6 years of age, the range © was from 52 to 9346 I. U., and the average per person was 20191, U. The © average figure was 81% of the NRC allowances of 2500 I. U. Ten subjects or ~ eae were below allowances and two subjects or 17% were above allowances,
ie six male and female subjects, 7 to 9 years of age, the ed abs was beta 77 to 10,231 I. U., and the average per person was 3508 I, U, The. average figure was 100% of the NRC allowances of 3500 I. U. Four subjects. or eve were below allowances and two subjects or 33% were above allowances.
“pox six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range’ was from 118 to 10,230 I. U., and. the. average per person was 2550 I. U,. The average figure was 57% of: the NRC allowarites:of 4500'1I..U, Five sub— jects or 83% were below a me. and one ek: or le was ; above allewance. ae Saye * anes
-For three male subjeets,-13 ts 15 joape eenabe? As. 5am was from 88 to.1781 I. U., and the average ‘per ‘person-was':901:1..:U...°The average figure was 18% of the NRC Sr aece, of at I. ie ee subjects or 100% were below allowances. APO Se
For three female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 79 to 824 I. U., and the average per person was 332 I, U, The average” figure was 7% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I, U. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances.
. For two male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 140 to 3458 I, U., and the average per person was 1799 I, U, The average figure was 30% of the NRC allowances of 6000 I. U. One subject or 50% was below the allowance, and one subject or 50% was above the allowance;
For four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the rangé:was from 138 to 2853 I. U., and the average per person was 1119 1, U. The average figure was 22% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I, U. Four subjects or 100% were below allowances, 3
For thirty three male subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 83 to 12,067 I, U., and the average per person was 1307 I. U. The average figure was 26% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I, U. Thirty subjects or 91% were below allowances and three subjects or 9% were above allowances.
For thirty six female subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 72 to 10,231 I. U., and the average per person was 1524 I. U.
Sal
The average figure was 30% of the NRC allowances of 5000 fe Uy therty. two subjects or 89% were below allowances and four subjects or aa were above allowances,
For eight male subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 7h to 1865 I, U., and the average per person was 436 I,.U, The average figure was 9% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U. Eight subjects or 100% were below allowances, ‘sett
For nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 82 to 7231 I, U;, and the average per person was 1375 I. U. The average figure was 27% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I, U, Eight subjects or 89% were below allowances and one subject or 11% was above the allowance.
For four female subjects, pregnant women, the range was from 209 to 1730 I, U;, and the average per person was 1040 I. U. The average figure was 17% of the NRC allowances of 6000 I; U. Two subjects or 50% were below allowances and two subjects or 50% were above allowances.
i For eleven female subjects, lactating women, the range was from 148 to 8693 I, U., and the average per person was 2499 I; U. The average figure was 31% of the NRC allowances of 8000 I,-U, Ten subjects or 91% were below allowances and one subject or 9% was above the allowance,
por the total group of one iatiiaihea sey tions subjects, one hundred forty subjects or 87% were below allowances: and ip de subjects or 13% were above allowances.
8, Thiamine
For eniee taut male and female subgééts 1 tos 3 areas of age, the range was from 124 to 1192 megs,, and the average per’ person was 503 mcgs,. The average figure was 84% of the NRC allowances of 600 mcgs. Eighteen iicuiaiiae or 75% were below allowances ‘and six or 25% were above: allowances.
For twelve male and female subjects, 4 to 6 years of age, the range was from 380 to 106) mcgs., and the average per person was 642 megs, The average figure was 80% of the NRC allowances of 800 mcgs, Nine subjects or 75% were below allowances and three or 25% were above allowances
For six male and female subjects, 7 to 9 years of age, the range was from 284 to 1259 mcgs., and the average person was 631 mcgs. The ' average figure was 63% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mcgs, Five subjects or 83% were below allowances and one subject or 17% was above the allowances,
For six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the ramge was from 417 to 1221 megs., and the average per person was 801 megs. The average figure was 67% of the NRC allowances of 1200 megs. . Five subjects or 83% were below allowances and one subject or 17% was hte the allowance,
For three male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, he! range was from 377 to 1435 megs., and the average per person was 939 mcgs, The average figure was 63% of the NRC allowances of 1500 megs. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances,
i | ig Hi) I
==
For three female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 708 to 772 mcgs., and -the.average. per person,was.745 megs, The average .~ figure was 57% of the NRC allowances of 1300 megs. Three: subjects. or. ee were below allowances. os
-For two male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 721 to 2109 megs., and the average per person was 1415 megs, The average | ‘figure was 83% of the NRC allowances of 1700 megs. One-sybject or 30% was below the allowance and one subject or 50% was above the allowance.
For four female subjects, . 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 452 to 1021 megs., and the average per person was 801 megs. The average figure was 67% of the NRC allowances of 1200 megs. Four sub lecas or abs were below allowances.
For thirty three male subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from. 431 to 2045 mcgs., and the average per person was 944 mcgs, The average figure was 63% of the NRC allowances of 1500 mcgs, Twenty eight subjects or 85% were below allowances and five subjects or 15% were above allowances,
For ‘thirty six female subjects, 2 tc 60 years of age, the range was from, 296 to 2090 megs,, and the average per person was 909 mcgs.e The average figure was 67% of the NRC allowances of 1200 megs, Thirty one or 86% were below allowances, and five subjects or 14% were above allowances.
Mor eight male subjects, 61 to 70 years, of age, the. range was from 44.7 to 1875 megs., and the average per person was 839 megs, The average figure was 70% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mcgs, Seven subjects or 88% were below allowances and one subject or 12% was above the allowance,
For nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 345 to 1494 mcegs., and the average per person was 683 mcgs. The average figure was 68% of the NRC allowances of 1000 megs. Eight subjects or 89% were below allowances. and one subject or il% was above the allowance,
For four female subjects, pregnant women, the range was from 546 to 933 megs., and the average per person was 718 mcgs. The average figure . was 48% of the NRC allowances of 1500. meee Four subjects or 100% were . below allowances.. Rah yet
For eleven female subjects, lactating women, the range was. from 121 to 1910 mcgs., and the average per person was 876 mcgs, The average figure was 58% of the NRC allowances of 1500 mcgs. Ten subjects or 1% were below allowances and one subject or 9% was above the allowance,
For the total group of one hundred sixty-one subjects, one hundred thirty six subjects or 85% were below allowances | and pee ch ANE, subjects or 15% were above allowances. te
9 Riboflavin For twenty-four male and female subjects, 1 to 3 years of age. the
range was from 99 to 964 mcgs.,y and. the average per person was 409 megs- The average figure was 45% of the NRC allowances of 900 megs, Twenty-three.
250.
subjects or 96% were below allowances and one subject or 4% was above the wie aaa
For twelve arian and female Eiaeats, 4 ae 6 years of age, the range was from 221 to 700 mcgs., and the average per person was 439 mcgs. The average figure was 36% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mcgs, Twelve subjects or 100% were Babee allowances, ee
For six ade and feral subjects, 7 to 9 years of age, the range was from 365 to 863 mcgs., and the average per person was 563 mcgs, The average figure was 37% of the NRC allowances of 1500 mcgs. Six subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 471 to 831 mcgs., and the average per person was 621 mcgs. The average figure was 34% of the NRC allowances of 1800 mcgs, Six subjects or 100%. were below allowances,
For three male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 320 to 877 megs., and the average per person was 622 mcgs, The average fizure was 31% of the NRC allowances of 2000 mcgs. Three subjects or 100% were. hekow allowances,
For three female subjects,.13 to 15 years of age, the range was 459 to 653 mcgs., and the average per person. was 568 megs; The average figure was 28% of the NRC allowances of 2000 mcgs. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For two male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 684 to 1583 megs., and the average per person was 1133 mcgs, The average figure was 45% of the NRC allowances of 2500 mcgs. Two subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 458 to 832 mcgs., and the average per person was 637 mcgs;, The average figure was 35% of the NRC allowances of 1800 mcgs, Four subjects or 100% were below: ‘allowances.
18 ecoregion male subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range _ was from 367:to 1477 mcgs., and the average per person was 726 megs, The average figure was 40% of the NRC allecwances of 1800 megs, Thirty_three subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For thine. nie female subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 375 to 1318-mcgs., and the average per person was 61,8 megs, The average figure was 43% of the NRC allowances of 1500 megs, Thirty-six subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For eight male subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 351 to 1159 megs., and the average per person was 619 megs, The average figure was 34% of the NRC allowances of 1800 megs. Eight subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 383 to 958 megs,, and the average per person was 550 megs, The average
ARol=
figure was 37% of the NRC allowances. of 1500 mcgs. Nine subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For four female subjects, pregnant women, the range was from 262 to 770 megs», and the. average per person was 485 mcgs., The average figure © was 19% of the NRC allowances of 2500 megs, Four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For eleven female subjects, lactating women, the range was from 384 to 1293 mcgs., and the average per person was 786 mcgs, The average figure was 26% of the NRC allowances of 3000 megs. Eleven subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For the total group of one hundred sixty-one subjects, one hundred sixty or 99% were below allowances and one subject or 1% was above the allowance,
TO}, Niacin
For twenty. four male and female subjects, 1 to 3 years of age, the - range was from 3 to 14 mgs., and the average per person was 11 mgs, The average figure was 180% of the NRC allowances of 6 mgs, #.g5i subjects or 33% were below allowances and sixteen subjects or 67% were above aliowances.
For twelve male and. female subjects, 4 to 6 years of age, the range was from 6.to 16 mgs., and the average per person was 9 mgs. ‘The average figure was 112% of the NRC allowances of 8 mgs. Five subjects or 42% were below allowances and seven subjects or 58% were above allowances,
-For six male and female subjects, 7 to 9 years of age, the range was from 10 to 15 mgs., and the average per person was 12 mgs, The average figure was 120% of the NRC allowances of 10 mgs. Six subjects or 100% were above allowances.
For six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range =. was from 9 to 17 mgs., and the average per person was 12 mgs. The average. - figure was 120% of the NRC allowances of 10 mgs, Two subjects or 33% were’ - below allowances and four subjects or 67% were above allowances,
For three male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from © 9 to 18 mgs., and the average per person was 13 mgs, The average figuré’* » was 87% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs; Two subjects or 67% were below - allowances and one subject or 33% was above the allowance.
. For three female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was’ from 11 to 14 mgs., and. the average per’ person was'12 mgs, The average figure was 92% of the NRC allowances of 13 mgs,:: Two subjects or 67% were below allowances and one subject or 33% was above the allowance,
For two male subjects,’ 16 to 20 years of-age, the range was from 9 to 25 mgse, and the average per person was 17 mgs. The average figure was | 100% of the NRC allowances of 17 mgs. One subject or 50% was below the allowance and one subject or 59% was above the allowance,
5D
For four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from § to 12 mgs., and the avérage per person was 10 mgs, The average figure was 83% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs, Three subjects or 75% were below allowances and one subject or 25% was above the allowance,
For thirty-three male subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 7 to 40 mgs., and the average per person was 13 mgs, The average figure was 87% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, Twenty three subjects
or 70% were below allowances and ten subjects or 30% were above allowances, .
For thirty-six female subjects, 21 to 60 years of age, the range was from 7 to.20 mgs., and the average per person was 12 mgs, The average figure was 100% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs: Seventeen subjects or 47% were below allowances and nineteen or 53% were above allowances.
For eight male subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 8 to 15 mgs., and the average per person was 12 mgs, The average figure was 100% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. Three subjects or 38% were eg allowances and five subjects or 62% were above allowances.«
For nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 7 to 15 mgs.,.and the average per person was 10 mgs, The average figure was 100% of the NRC allowances of 10: mgs. Four subjects: or. 44% were below allowances and five subjects or 56% were above allowances,
For four female subjects, pregnant women, the range was from 6 to 11 mgse, and the’ average per person was 8 mgs, The average figure: was 53% of the ‘NEC: at es b mgs, ‘Four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
Toe eleven fete subjects, lactating worten, the range was from 10 to 21 mgs., and the average per person was 16 mgs, The average figure was 107% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, Five ‘subjects or 45% were below allowances and six subjects or 55% were above aliowances « ae
AD phe G For the total group of one hundred one: subjects, seventy—nine sub-...
jects or 49% were below eis ah fe fia Gone ud Ah or wee were above allowances, are
1 Ascorbic Acid
For twenty-four male and female subjects, 1 to 3 years of age, the range was from 3 to 114 mgs., and the average per person was 20 mgs, The average figure was 57% of the NRC allowances of 35 mgs, Twenty subjects or 83% were below allowances and four subjects or 17% were above allowances.
For twelve male and female subjects, 4 to 6 years of age, the range was from 1 to 78 mgs., and the average person was 30 mgs, The.average figure was 60% of the NRC allowances of 50 mgs, Eight subjects or 67%... were below allowances and four: subjects or 33% were above allowances,
For six male and female subjects, 7 to 9 years of age, the range was from 5 to 47 mgs., and the average per person was 19 mgs, The average figure was 32% of the NRC allowances of - mgs. Six subjects or 100% were below allowances,
5B
For six male and female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from. 6.. to 57 mgs,, and the average per person was 26 mgs, The average figure was 35% of the NRC allowances: of 75. MES, Six iil ona were below allowances. agene
For three male subjects, 13 to 15 years of. age,, the range-was from 6 tq 88 MS og: -and the average per person was 33.mgs, The avernee figure was 37%. of the. NRC allowances of 90 mgs. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances, i
For.three female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from) 37,60. 9) mgs,,and the average per person was 6 mgs, The average figure . was 7%.of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs, Three subjects or eo: were below . allowances. mT as 1p ese cbt ae GENE
For two male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 8 to 32 mgs., and the average per person was 20 mgs. The average figure was 20% of the NRC allowances of 200 mgs- . Two subjects or 100% were belew: allowances, i ' he
For four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range from 7 to 47 mgs., and the average per. person was 10 mgs.. The average figure. . ~ was 12% of the NRC, allowances of 8 mgs. Four subASars or ie were below . allowances, Aelng
For thirty-three male subjects, 21 to 60. years of age, the range was from 3 to 88 mgs,, and the average per person was 14 mgs» The. average figure was 19% of the NRC allowances of 75. mgs, Thirty-two subjects or, 97% were below allowances and one subject or 3% was above the allowance.
For thirty-six female subjects, 2. to 60: years of eee the range was from 4 to 88 mgs,, and the average per person was 13 mgs. | The. average. figure was 18% of the NRC. allowances of 70 mgs,. Thirty-five. subjects or. 97% were below allowances and one subject or 3% was above the allowances
For eight ‘male subjects, 61. te 70. years of age, Phe, range was tian 7 to 34 mgs., and the average per person was ll mgs, The average figure, was 15% of the NRC allowances of 75 mgs, Eight subjects or 100% were below allowances. '
For nine female subjects, 61 to 70 years of age, the range was from 4 to 32 mgs., and the average per person was 13 MgS«. The average figure was 18% of the, NRC allowances of 70 mgs. Nine subjects or 100% were below allowances. :
For four female subjects, pregnant women, the range was from 6 to 18 mgs., and the average per person was 9 mgs. The average figure was 9% of the NRC allowances of 100 mgs. Four subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For eleven female subjects, lactating women, the range was from 5 to 71 mgse, and the averege per person was 1.7 mgs, The average figure was 11% of the NRC allowances of 150 mgs. Eleven subjects or 100% were | below allowances.
~5h=
For the total group of one hundred sixty-one subjects, one hundred fifty-one subjects or 94% were below allowances and ten: aa or 6% were above allowances,
Table 4 summarizes the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances of children and adult male subjects of Majuro Village, Majuro Island, Marshall Islands, There were forty-eight children, males and females, and forty-six males, There were twenty-four male and female children between the ages of 1 through 3 years of age; twelve male and female children between the ages of 4 through 6 years of age; six male and female children between the ages of 7 to 9 years of age; and six male and female subjects between the ages of 10 through 12 years of age,
There were forty-six male subjects, There were three subjects, 13 through 15 years of age; two subjects, 16 through 20 years of age; thirty- three subjects, 21 to 60 years; eight subjects 61 through 70 years.
The average intakes, NRC allowances, percent of allowances, percent ef subjects below allowances, for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid are given,
T. CHILDREN
as ito 3 years of age
For twenty four males and females, 1 to 3 years of age, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized here:
1. Calories: average intake was 823 calories, which was 68% of the NRC allewances of 1200 calories. Ninety-two percent of the subjects were below allowances.
2, Protein: average intake was 26 gms,, which was 65% of the NRC allowances of 40 gms, Eighty-eight percent of the subjects were below allowances,
3. Fat: average intake was 13 gms., which was 39% of the NRC allowances of 33 gms. Ninety-six percent of the subjects were below allowances.
4, Calcium: average intake was 229 mgs., which was 23% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances.
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 40 mgs.',. which was 40% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. Forty percent: of the subjects were below allowances.
6, Iron: average intake was 6 mgs., which was 86% of the NRC allowances of 7 mgs. Sixty-two percent of the subjects were below allowances,
7, Vitamin A: average intake was 1404 I. U,, which was 70% of the NRC allowances of 2000 I, U.j Eighty—three percent of the subjects were below allowances,
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8. “Phianings” verage’ intake’ was, 503" megse» which was 84% of, the NRC allowances of 600 megs. ‘Seventy—five percent of the subjects were below allowances,
Sige Riboflavin: average - intake was “409 megs. y ay te was 45% a of the NRC allowances of 900 megs. ‘Ninety-six percent of the subjects i were below allowances.
“10, Niacin: » average intake. ‘was sd MES 5 which.» was 180% of the NRC allowances of 6 mgs. Thirty-three ‘percent of ‘the subjects were below allowances,
11, Ascorbic acid: average “intake: was 20 mes.) which was 57%.: of the NRC allowances of 35 mgs. Eighty-three percent ‘of the subjects were below allowances.
One hundred percent of the subjects were below aa Peeeneed for naaktaeis and phosphorus with all twenty-four subjects below allowances. Ninety-six percent of the subjects were below allowances for fat and riboflavin; 92% of the subjects were below allowances for calcries; 88% of the subjects were below allowances for protein; 83% of the subjects were. below allowances for both vitamin A and ascorbic acid; 75% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine; and 62% of the gub jects were below allowances for iron;
Only 33% of the subjects were below allowances. for niacin, 678 | were, above allowances. ra a
b: 4 to 6 years of age
For twelve males and females, 4 to 6 years of age, the daily quanti-— ties of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized heres
1, Calories: average intake was 1096 calories, which was 68% of the NRC allowances of 1600 cal ork eae. Ninety-two, percent of the subjects were below allowances, wi su
2. Protein: average intake was 42 gms., which was 84% of the — NRC allowances of 50 gms. Sixty-seven percent. of the subjects were below allowances, i jag
3. Fat: average intake was 21 gms,, which was 48% of the NRC allowances of 44 gms. Ninety-two percent of the subjects were below allowances. 4 ;
ho Calcium: average intake was 303 gms., which was 30% of’ the NRC allowances of 1000 MES 2 One hundred percent of the subjects were. below allowances, ee M4 Which
ae St SS =
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 572 mgs,, which was 57% of the NRC allowances of 1000 MES « One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances. aes i
Ree PACES SS at
1 NRE: atlewsnces of: e ig pe “Thirty-three percent. of. the. paneer were below vi
were below allowances. i te vat
.. galeium,;: phosphorus, and riboflavin with twelve subjects: below allowances,
au
6. Iron: average intake was 8 mgs., which’ was 100% of the allowances, <= Peat nan) tet
7, Vitamin A: average intake was 2019 Le Uey which was 81% of the NRC allowances of’ 2500. Te. Uo mace i eer of the subjects thy were below allowances, a
Bs: -Thiamine: average intake was 642 MCgSe, which was 80% Of)", the NRC Al owanidss" ‘of 860 MCES 5 Seventy~five. ets ia of the subjects were vn below allowances, © =‘ ** ;
. ' 9. . Riboflavin: average intake was 439 mcgso, which was 366") 2 on one NRC allowances of 1200 MCZS o One puna ed ial oa of the ‘subjects m1
“10, Niacin: average.intake was 9 mgs: 4 which was 112% of the _. NRC. Allowances of ae MES o ” Forty-two. percent of the: pypdecte were below allowances. S iu tate :
Tae Kadontie: acid!! average intake was. 30: ee which was 6087 | ait the: NRC allowances of” 5 BES, eixty-seven Pea gee of the ‘subjects were | “below allowances’. , ,
acca
Jone hundred percent of the. subjects were below allowances for :
Fat and calories followed with 92% of the subjects below allowances;
Vitamin A with 83% of the subjects below allowances; thiamine with 75%
of the subjects below allowances; and protein and- ascorbic acid both with 67% of the subjects below allowances. , Thirty-three pervent of the subjects were below allowances’ for iron and 42% of the. subjects were below allowances for niacin; 674 of the: subjects were above. alldvancés: fork ‘iron and EBa | of the subjects. were above ay erenees for niacinsigc% 2 07"
Pe 2 to 2 nyeune of age |
: “For ais ase and females, 7 to 91 eae of: ‘ame: “the Peon quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC sitoyenens | are a heres ie ae i
SHEN
“1, Calories: average fabake was 1269 ateriea: which was 63%
of the NRC allowances of 2000 calories, One hundred percent of the subjects were below i PATON CP ey, ies
ta nto Protein: ‘ igo intake was 52 ams. which was 87% of the © NRC allowances of 60 gms, and ER: of the subjects were below atone x. : oi apy ebetanc |
igs 8 Fat? average ‘intake was 21 mse, wiilen was: 376 of the
NRC ainlowances of 56 gms, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances. 2 RO Lares ae a ) e spe Caléiuiti ‘averdge “Gntake was 53h. 1 MESo, which was 53% of the NRC aNtiouaitede of 1000 mgs. Sixty-seven percent .of the subjects were below allowances. s
eo i
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 732 mgs,, which was 61% i of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs; One hundred percent of the subjects An were below allowances,
6. Iron: average intake was 10 mgs., which was 100% of the NRC allowances of ~ ne Fifty percent of the subjects were below allowances, . Pas eta eon Pheer
*) tee eooehs ‘sah th sige was 3508 I. U., which was 100% © of the NRC allowances of 3508 I. U, Sixty-seven percent of the subjects were ae ceed Pg ak aloe ae Ya hel ae anna m
rags Thiamine: deeage tates was 631 megs;, which was 63% of the NRC allowances of 1000 megs, Eighty-three percent of the subjects were below allowances. ;
9, Riboflavin: average intake was 563 mcegs;, which was 37% of the NRC allowances of 1500 mcgs, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances, -
10, WNiacing average intake was 12 mgs., which was 120% of the NRC allowances of 10 mgs. None of the subjects were below allowances.
11, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 19 mgs., which was 32% of the NRC allowances of 60 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below aLLowancess
One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, fat, phosphorus, riboflavin and ascorbic acid with six subjects below allowances, Thiamine followed with 83% of the subjects below allowances; calcium and Vitamin A both with 67% of the subjects below allowances, y
For protein and iron, the percentage of subjects were equally divided with 50% below and 50% above allowances, All the sudjects or 100% were above allowances for niacin,
Go 0 to 12 years of ag
For six males and females, 10 to 12 years of age, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized heres
1. Calories: average intake was 1577 calories, which was 634 of the NRC allowances of 2500 calories, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
2. Protein: average intake was 62 gms., which was 88% of the NRC allowances of 70 ems, Eighty-three percent of the subjects were below allowances,
3. Fats average intake was 30 gms., which wag 43% of the NRC saa A st of 69 gms, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances, : !
2604
4. Calcium: average intake was 486 mgs,, which was 40% of the NRC ailowances cf. fa soles One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances 9!" | Hy ies NA ANN a NSPE AL inuiy vo ngi eta Be an
5e Piedras: average intake was 925 mgs,, which was 77% of the NRC allowances of 1200 MESo Eighty-three percent..of the subjects were below allowances, i hairline dat dais Ae Seat
6. Iron: average intake was 11 mgs., which was 92% of the NRC allowances of 12 MESo Sixty=seven percent of the subjects were below allowances.” diipinine kee iA GT ge A AnD 7. Vitamin A: average intake was 2550 I. U., which was 57% of the NRC allowances of 4500 qT. Us Fighty=three percent of the subjects were below allowancess °° | | UN Te
8, Thiamine: average intake was 801 megs, which was 67% of the RG a Eorences ea 1200 ‘MCgSs. 63% of the subjects were below allowances .
uD) 9. Ripeflaving average intake was 621 megs., which was 38 of <a the NRC allowances of 1800 mcgs, One hundred percent of the subjects were © below allowances. ibs i “10, 'Niacins’ average intake was 12 mgs., which was 120% of the NRC allowances of an ise Thirty-three percent of the subjects were below a : bihalagai Ai ma Re er aa
11, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 26 mgs., which was 35% _ of the NRC allowances of 3 MESo Cne hundred percent of the subjects were below’ allowances» near Ns Ba ante One hundred ey of the i dane were below allowances for Ay he calories,” fat, calciun, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid with six subjects below aticuaneas. Bighty=three percent of the subjects were belaw | allowances for protein, phosphorus, vitamin A and thiamine, Sixty-seven ae ae) of the is were below allowances for iron, pena RMR ion
Thirty-three pales of the subjects’ were below allowances for niacin and sixty-seven percent were above allowances.
Th, “MALES © a. 13 to 15 years of age
For three males, 13 to 15 years of age, “the ‘daily quantities of . various nutrients per perso* a and comparisons with NRC allowances are aummarized heres
1. Calories: average intake was 1385 calories, vihich was 43%. of the NRC allowances of 3200 calories, One hundred percent of the sub jects | were below allowances .,,
2. Protein: average intake was 49 LMS o, which was 582 of the NRC allowances of 85 gms. One hundred percent of the’ subjects were below allowances»
-61~
3. Fats average intake was 28 gms,, which was 31% of the i NRC allowances of 89 gms, One hundred percent of the subjects were below i allowances, : |
4. Calcium: average intake was 313 mgs., which was 22% of the NRC allowances of 1400 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances of 1400 mgs, One hundred percent of the subjects were below aliowances,
5, Phosphorus: average intake was 552 mgs., which was 42% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below ailowances,
6, Irons: average intake was 8 mgs., which was 53% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
7. Vitamin A: average intake was 901 I. U., which was 18% of | the NRC ailowances of 5000 I. U, One hundred percent of the subjects were anil below allowances,
er : SoM aes Titmuss SSS SS = ee as ee oo ee ee ——— ——— Ss =
—
8. Thiamine: average intake was 939 mcgs., which was 63% of the NRC allowances of hen megs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowarices,
| 9. Riboflavin; ces intake was 622 mcgs., which was 31% of th the NRC allowances of 2000 mcgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were Mu below allowances,
10, Niacin: average intake was 13 mgs., which was 87% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. Sixty+seven percent of the subjects were below allowances, teen:
it, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 33 mgs., which was 37% of the NRC allowances of 90 mgs, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin and ascorbic acid. Sixty-seven percent of the subjects were below allowances for niacin,
b. 16 to 20 years of age
For two males, 16 to 20 years of age, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparisons with the NRC allowances are summarized:
1, Calories: average intake was 2240 calories, which was 59% of the NRC allowances of 3800 calories, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
2. Proteins: average intake was 92 gms,, which was 92% of the NRC allowances or 100 gms, Fifty percent of the subjects were below allowances.
7 62-
3, Fats average intake was 32 gms., which was 30% of the NRC allowances or 105 gms. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
4, Calcium: average intake was 489 mgs., which was 35% of the NRC allowances of 1400 mgs, One. hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances. hi
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 117% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs, Fifty percent of the subjects were below.allowances.
$. Irons average intake was 17 fice. hatch yee 113% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, Fifty percent of the subjects were below allowances,
7. . Vitamin Ag average intake was 1799 In Us, which was 30% of the NRC allowances of 6000 I, U, Fifty percent of the subjects were below allowances,
8, Thiamine: average intake was 1415 megs., which was 83% of the NRC allowances of 1700 megs. Fifty percent of the subjects were below allowances,
9, Riboflavin: average intake was 1133 MCESe, which was 45% of the NRC allowances of 2500 megs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
10, Niacin: average intake was 17 mgs., which was 100% of the NRC allowances of i7 mgs, Fifty percent of the subjects were below allowances.
ll, . Teenraic acid: average intake was 20 mgs., which was 20% of the NRC allowances of 100 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
One paneer percent of the subjects were below, aliowances. for calories, fat calcium, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid: 50% of the subjects were below allowances for protein, pacenenae iron, vitamin A, thiamine and niacin. HU ae
Co 2h to 60 years of.age ,
For thirty-three males, 21 to 60 years of age, the daily quantities of various rmivriemts per persen and comparisoas with the NRC allowances are summarized here:
1, Calories: average intake was 1469 calories, which wes 49% of the NRC aliowances of 5000 calories. One hundred pexcent of the subjects were below allowances,
2. Protein: average intake was 54 gms», which was 77% of the NRC allowances of 70 gms, Highty~two percent of the subjects were below allowances.
3. Fat: average intake was 24 mgSe, which was 29% of the NRC allowances of 83 gems. Ninety-seven percent of the subjects were below allowances
* ‘he “Caleiums average intake was 390 mgs., which was 39% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. Ninety-seven percent of the subjects, were below allowances;
viene
- 5, ‘Phosphorus: average intake was’ 74h MESo5- which’ was 56% of. the. NRG. allowances: of 1320 mgs, Ninety-one percent of the subjects wer below ailowances, aii eoigtaeravs
Soe
PES eee an eae eee
2. 65 ‘Epon: vaverage intake was i0’mgs., which was 83% of the...” NRC :allowances of'12-mgs, ‘Sixty=four percent of the subjects were below. allowances,
“9%, Vibantin: Ac! average intake was 1307 I. Uo; which: was 26% of the NRC’ allowances“of 5000 I, U. Ninety-one percent of the ‘subjects | were below allowances,
[in uo» - 8, “Thiemine: average pk was 944 megs, “which was 63% of. the NRC allowances of 1500 megs. ghty~five percent of the subjects were . below allowances, men iad hr dient ge
ee OS, FL" Rthoflavines average intake was 726 megso,. ‘which was hO% . of ihe NRC aliowances of 2400 megs; ‘One hundred percent of the subjects “st were below allowances, ri
Be ‘Naacin: average intake’ was 13 mgs.,\ which was 874 of the NRC: nerd of 15 mgs. Seventy percent of the subjects were below _ allowances. '
‘Mls’ Ascorbic acids: average intake was 1: mgso, which was 19%... of the NRe allowances of 75 mgs. Ninety«seven percent of the subjects” were below allowances,
14 One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories and. riboflavin; 974 of thé subjects were below allowances for fat, calciwn, and ascorbic acid; 91% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus ard vitamin A3 5% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine and 62% of the subjects ‘were below allowances for protein, Seventy. percent cf the subjects were below allowances for niacin. and | 648 of: the-subjects were beliow allowances ta iron, :
da, 61 to 70 O.years of se , | Pre
For eight males, éL 86 70 years’ ae age, the aay quate des" aes of various nutrients per person and comparisons with the NRC allowances are summarized heré: » SRE Mb EE REE BSG oF eciees
‘ls. Calories: average intake was 1302 calories, which was 542° of the NRC allowances of ae hae yee One hundred percent of the subjects were below ee. BE aN eae fr aaa |
7 25 eppabaarit average » eae’ was | 42 gms»; which-was 60% of thie
NRC deewsieas of” a eee _ One es shell of the subjects were » below allowances, ° eta
2 5% Me n >. PEGE EAE Joe CE . Lin
-64,-
3. Fabs: average intake was 16 gms., which was 24% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances.
4, Calcium: average intake-was 308 mgse, which was 31% of the ‘NRC allowances of 1000 mgs, One hundred percent of the subjects were '. below allowances, sf
_ 52 Phosphorys:. average intake was 601 mgs. which was 45% of the NRC. allowances of 1320 mgs, One hundred percent of the subjects were.’ below aliowances, hones
6, Ironz average :intake was 8 mgs., which was.67% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. Seventy-five percent of the sublectenn were below allowances,
.7. .Vitamin A: average intake was 436. I. U., which was 9% of the NRC. tances of 3000 I. U, One hundred percent of the. subJecke were: UB ye below allowances, wie or
Sa Thiamine: .average intake was 839 megso, which was 70% of the NRC aicenees of .1200° MCZSo Eighty-eight percent of the subjects were . below allowances,
__95 Riboflavin; average intake was 619 mcgs., which was 34% of the NRC allowances of 1800 megs... One hundred percent of the subjects were. below allowances, saenuaiel X2
. 10,. Niacins. average intake was 12 mgs., which was 100% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below ~ allowances | ‘ : ;
.. 11... Ascorbic acids average intake was 11 mgsoy.which was 15% of the. NRC allowances of 75 mgs. One hundred percent of chen subd ee tent aa below allowances. : ye
One. Ranared percent. of the subjects were Selon ai Toneribee: Ens calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, riboflavin, and » ascorbic acid; 88% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine; anal 75% of the subjects were below allowances for iron,
Thirty~eight percent of the subyeens were below Gate os for niacin and. S22 of. Us eubsecte were akoye allowances »
“Table 5 summarizes the aati quantities ee various muhewlenhe, per person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances for female. Subsechs os Ha liee village, Majuro Island, ee stands,
There were sixty-seven females: three pub gecuae 13 through 15 years of ages four subjects, 16 through 20 years; thirty-six subjects, 21 to 60 years; nine subjects, 61 through 70 years; four pregnant women, and eleven lactating women. The average intakes, NRC allowances, percent of allowances, percent of subjects below allowances, for calories, protein, - fat, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid are given.
-65-
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36 ray
Giles III. FEMALES. DEN
a. 13 to 15 years of age For three females, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily quantities
of various nutrients. per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized: ; one cae ie
1, Calories: average intake was 1487 calories, which was 57%
of the NRC allowances of 2600 calories, One hundred percent of the: subjects
were bel ow allowances > a
2. Proteimg average intake was 59 ems., which was 74% of the NRC allowances of 80 gus, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances. Sl : sisi hat
3, Fats average intake was 25 ems,, which was 35% of the NRC allowances of 72 gms, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
4. Calcium: average intake was 442 ems., which was 344 of the NRC allowances of 1300 mgs, One hundred percent.of the subjects were below allowances, — ate ry 77 ¢
5, Phosphorus: average intake was 655 mgs., which was 54% of the NRC allowances. of. 1200 MgB. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances, 4° 9 eet te OS
6, Iron: average intake was 9 mgs., which was 60% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances, :
7. Vitamin A: average intake was 332 I..Us, which was 7% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I; U. One hundred percent of-the subjects were « below allowances, msbiy id's
. 8» Thiamine: average intake was 745.megss, which was 57% of the NRC allowances of 3390 megs, One hundred percent of: the subjects’ were below allowances. ;
9. Riboflavin: average intake .was 568 megs., which was 28% of the NRC allowances of 2000 megs. One hundred percent of the subjects | were below allowances,
10. Niacin; average intake was 12 mgs.,.which was 92% of the NRC allowances of 13 mgs, Sixty-seven percent of the subjects were below allowances,
11, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 6-mgs. which was 7% :02 the NRC allowances of 80 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects weze: below allowances,
_ One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, . riboflavin and ascorbic acid,
-68~
Sixty~seven percent of the subjects were below allotiinces for niacin.
be 16 to 20 years of 2g2
For four females, 16 to apren of age, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparisons with the NRC allowances are summarized:
Mery fsb iw
i 1, Calories: average intake was 1323 calories, vhich. was "558 se of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories. One hundred percent of thie sub- Jects were betw allowances,
Bye Protein: average intake was’ 52 gms-, which was 69% of” | aa the NRC allowances of 75 gms. Seventy-five percent of the subjects were ~~ below allowances, _ 5
3. Fats average intake was 15 gms., which was’ Bog ‘of the NRC | allowances of 67 gms. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances, 2 ae
he Caleiunis Seb tade! intake was 277 mgs:, “which” was 28% of the me NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjeéts were below allowances. a
hep ae TEE toda
. 55 Phbophemiss @ ‘average intale ‘was 5 Bb aes! mien ‘was a8 Left the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs, Fifty percent of the subjects were below allowances. =. ' We ee amine 1b ee ae a
okies
6. Iron: average sit chee was 6 6 nde! sth eb vag 0% of the Nic” allowances of 15 mgs, Fifty percent of the subjects were below allowancéss
(90. Vitamin As pres intake! ‘was’ 1119' Me Ua which: was 22% of the NRC. allowances of 5000 I..U. One hundred percent: of the ‘Subjects rere below allowances.
8. Thiamines average intake was: 801 MOZSog which ¥ was 618 (oh Pale ae the NRC allowances of 1200 mcgs, One hundred percent of the Subjects were omat! below allowances, seat
9, Ribotlayvins average: intake was’ 637 m3 1553 5° whick was 352. oe of the NEC aljowusies’ of 1800 megs. One hundred’pervent of ‘the stibjects 27 were below allowaiicss, ee
10, Niacin: average intake was’ 10 mgs) which Was’ £32 of ‘the. NRC allowances of 12 mgs, Seventy-five percent ‘of the" Subjects | were ‘below allowances,
11, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 10° TES» 5, ‘which was" 128... of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs. One: hundred percent of the subjects. were” below allowances,
One hundred: percent of the - ‘Subjects were below’ alidwances for 4g calories, fat, calcium, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, : -and ascorbic acide
-69-
Seventy=five: percent of the subjects were below allowances: for protein and niacin; 50% of the subjects. were below allowances for’ both phosphorus | and..ivon, eae TS tx aes
ght 7) 60 a: of ane
“For thirty-six ronitlaey 21 to’ 60 years of age, the daily feetiics of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowanses are sumiarized:
1. Calories: average intake was 1365 calories, which was 57% ‘.0f the .NRC allowances ‘of -2/,00 calories. Ninety~seven percent of the sub= jects were below allowances, ’ .
2. Protein: average intake was 47 gms., which was 78% of the NRC allowances of: fe BMS 0 Seventy=two percent of the subjects were beiow : Jallowanses, ee i r ke de
3. Fat: average intake was 23 gms;, which was 24% of the NRC allowances. of 67 gms, Ninety-seven percent of the subjects were below allowances. Re Se MovOr : * . RR SR as. lees lL, Calciums average intake was 363 mgs., which was 36% of the NRC.-allowances | of ise thes, One» hundred percent of-the subjects were below allowances, — j Ae SG. Deen Beuheot: et’. 2 Rea ae Ses mete:
5. Ph iosphor uss average intake was 661 mgs., which was 50% of the NRC. .allowandes.of 1320 mgs, Ninety«seven percent of ‘the subjects were bélow allowances. . : ene she wae z3
6. Irons average intake was 10 mgs., which was 83% of the NRC ali.owances of 12 MS 0 Eighty=three percent of the subjects were below allowances, — Aes RSE AL eee. ¢ ix
7- Vitamin A: average intake was 1524 I, U;, which was 30% of the NRC allowances of 2 I. i nar cima 9 anaes of the Sg amen were below allowances; © - : ; Senet rt Ane wie
8. Thiamine: average intake was 809 mcgs., which was 5 676 0 of the: NRC. allowarices.of 1200 ease ee 2 ae SS ae of the eu Jeet were beidw allowances, “ft
9. Riboflavins average intake was 648 megs., which was 43% of ithe ‘NRC allowances of 1500 es ’-One huridred percent of the subjects were below allowances, ent + eee FREE BRS.
10, Niacin: average intake was 12 mgs., which was 100% of the NRC. allowances: ‘of. 12 mgs, Forty-seven percent of the subjects were below allowances, «| aes et ay i ie Bee
ll. Assorbie acid: average intake was 13 mgs., which was 18% of the NRC allowances for 70 : oe eievy-severt percent of the subjects were ‘below allowances, iy: , bye wat
270
’. One’ hundred’ percent of’ the subjects were below allowances for © calcium and riboflavin; ninety~seven percent of the subjects were below © - allowances for calories, fat, phosphorus, and ascorbic acid; 89% of the subjects were below ailevanees for vitamin A: 86% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine: 72% of the sub jects: were below allowances for protein; and 67% of the subjects were below allowances for irons Forty-seven percent of the subjects were below adavences and 93% were above allowances for niacin,
d. 61 to 70 years of age
| For nine oe 61 to 70 years of aze, the. Weeleie cuanbieaee of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized:
ot aluges Calories: average intake was 1197 calories, which was 60% of the NRC allowances of 2000 calories. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
2, Protein: average intake was 38 gms., which was 63% of the NRC allowances of 60 gms, Seventy-eight percent of the subjects were below allowances,
34 Fate average intake was 19 ems., which was 34% of the NRC allowances of 56 gms, One hundred percent of the subjects were below . allowances.
Ao “Caleium: average intake was 375. mess, which was 37% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs, One hundred percent of the subjects were below - allowances.
5-2 Phosphorus: average intake was 582 mgsa, which was 44% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were _. below Sieasilg naa
- 64. Irons average intake was 11 mgSe, which was 92% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs, Seventy-eight percent of the subjects were below allowances,
T "Vitamin Az average intake was 1375 I Us uhaeh was 5 278 of the NRC allowances of 5000 I, U, EHighty=nine percent of the subjects were Pie et tevaneees
8. Thandie average intake was 683 megs,, which was 68% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mcgs, LHighty-nine percent of the subjects were below allowances,
9, Riboflavin: average intake was 550 megs., which was 37% of the NRC allowances of 1500 mcgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances.
10, Niacin: average intake was 10 mgse, which was 100% of the NRC allowances of 10 mgs, Forty~four percent of the subjects were below allowances.
flies
11, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 13 mgs., which was 18% of the NRC allowances of 70 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances,
One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, fat, calcium, phosphorus, riboflavin and ascorbic acid; 89% of the subjects were below allowances for vitamin A and thiamine; 737, of the subjects were below allowances for ‘protein and iron,
Forty-four percent of the subjects were below allowances for niacin and 56% were above allowances.
@. Pregnant women
For four pregnant women, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized:
1, Calories: average intake was 1013 calories, which was 42% of the NRC allowances of 21,00 calories, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances. oe |
2. Protein: average intake was 32 gms., which was 38% of the NRC allowances of 85 gms. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances, ae ee
3. Fat: average intake was 8 gems., which was 12% of the NRC allowances of 67 sree One hundred percent of the subjects were below aetna. att re : Cinot IT APS sila
he Calcium average intake was 205 mgs., which was 20% of the NRC allowances of rae (MS One hundred percent of the subjects were below ad lotantens > OBRTH’ cilia
5s Leaded average intake was 451 mgs., which was 25% of the NRC allowances of 1800 MES» One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances, Pais:
allowances of 15 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below - ‘semipaanaie , a
1 Vitamin A: average intake was 1040 I. U., which was 17% of the NRC allowances of 6000 I. U, Fifty percent of the subjects were below allowances, a ht a , lo 8, Thiamine: average intake was 718 mcgs., which was 48% of the NRC allowances of qe MCES« One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances. tAR: sicher leila ina Rei |
96 Riboflavin: average intake was 485 megs., which was 19% of the NRC allowances of 2500 Megs Cne hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances, — , on, Barat miseries 5
10, Niacin: average intake was 8 mgs., which was 53% of the ie NRC allowances of 15 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjects were below ay
allowances.
2a. an neal: eR ial
“Lo. Asterbic aca average i¥itake was 9 mgs., which was 9% of — ne ‘NRC a Tiouenee: of 100 mgs. One hundred percent of the subjécts were © below adrowaricess
eS ; 4 se unastt Bd bi Ppeesiained ie -
‘One Pate pee of ther stijects' were! ‘below alcimaibis deukes calories, protein, fat, calcium, ‘phosphors iron; thiamine, riboflavinj = niacin and ascorbic acid, -Fifty percent “of ‘the subjects were below’ ne, pace for vitamin ie
eccme ts ats evel ~ Meeuamaee <i Hawanybrges el > f. Lactating women «
For eleven lactating women, the daily quantities of various nutrients ber, Berea and eonpT son uae the NRC ay aes are summarized:
Wf ty.
sibs. tas i ae eee average - digtake nel aoe ealeriees which ‘was’ 56% ~ of the NRC allowances of aoe Ceeteces One Paani maar of the auBAsers were ao aN Pp Peomanegee oe aia a bes Wales a wtcnteenlaniada Metis Peucaiiaelie is
2, Besrean: " average intake was 62 ems, hie ‘was 62% 2% of the NRC allowances of 100 gms. One hundred percent of the subjects were below ae eH Salen nerazone sae aR : 3, iol ae intake was 27 gms., which was 32% of the NRC. :- allowances of 83 ‘EMS One hundred percent of the subjects were below eee we ibiie a mr is aceite ea A ve 9a Calciums average intake was 466 mgs., which was 23% of the: ° NRC alij.owances of 2000 ae One hundred percent of the subjects were below eatowene rs ORS a as PROM cotecws aoa eke comacoanainrie aeenk uhaiila 7) eae | Bion Mie Nahai Nida... and “jie BA. wee | UNE Sie | ea er Eng eau Sets e Phen chowins average intake was 840 mgs., which was 47# of !+% the NRC allowances of 1800 mgs, One hundred apcbaci of the subjects were mene a TLMaNe eS hi Be) eu ittce PM Sr RM es Fe aa Ante Wy fides } ; We oT Zoi ‘ Bee eps este meee ts se AE a Fe Ra kan 6a. Tron: average inte was 12 MESs, natch was 80% of the: NRO* © allowances of 15 MES e Seventy. bhree percent of the pep dsene were pee
ci
allowances.“ tig) inet : ; sh acre) pseu Libs ae Te “ity ae fa aie 7. Vitamin Az srisgaas Pephiy was wonoE I. U., heen was: ee ees LAE the NRC allowances of 8000 i ae eae tea percent of the fee were below. ECB S C8 Boe dish fy Oui sae CREARATS, | GG, ah ; Hee nee Fines ~ it in
We iiaudne: yveraue aneeke | was vere meeSe, which was 58%. obi os the NRC allowances of a0 MICE Ss Ninety~one percent of the subjects were below a aeneess pik. wt ulus bens Zusrabins rae ; a
ioe aay zg intake was 786 MCES oy which was 26%. of «fs: the NRC allowances of ane? RBS Cne hundred percent of the subjects were below Soachan ates fg bURHRE, ie Biche vas aula Sy Sa ots OL OM. ms ost, wate quarts - ame ORee Yb seagate eae ames 10, coves eee Wintake was 16 mgso, which was 107%: ofthe “i: NRC allowances of 15 mgs. Forty-five percent were below allcwances,
wits ay: Hone aed , a3 yd eee. aaimaigaaacueieaay: |) uncured 3 ,
d G . pers . Sui con steer ‘ oy Yet | Reaweey aBillivn Sy de Raut sates | ela Le Bee HERE ET > MIR SC Un PRE hrs G91 98 Ke SM nCr kt
OU end
mM ds pee
Bp fe
AS: Ascorbic acid: _ average intake was 1Y mgs.e, which was 1L% of the NRC allowances of 150 “mgs. One hundred ee: of the subjects were below ai laloapoe
one hundred —e of the Subjects were seca allowances for ealories, protein, fat, . calcium, © phosphorus, riboflavin and ascorbic acid; 91% of the subjects were below allowances for vitamin. A and thiamine ; and 73% of the subjects were below allowances for iron. Forty-five per- cent of the subjects were below Sp uleaas for niacin and 55% were above allowances. aR frie ‘
The averages of nutrient intake of one hundred sixty-one Marshallese of Majuro village are classified in relation to NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances. The average intakes are given as percentages of NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances. The results are given in Table 6,
Table 6. Classification of Averages of Nutrient Intake of -one hundred sixty-one Marshallese of Majuro village in Relation. to NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances
Classification of Average Intake as
-“Nutrient | Percentage of NRC Recommended Dietary Allowences tar | 0 to 100% 3 Feat dk and over 70 to 89% ‘Under 70% thai phe ela of individuals iis Gatgwiiesit,e!! “ighod prigiaiasamae iat egg 125 Protein an rN 44 bk 70 Fet ee ta a 3 | 154 “Gat ontat mM od ey 3 4 154 Phosphorus 13 15 133 Iron 67 33 61 Vitamin A 21 5 135 Thiamine 33 29 Ss) Riboflavin 2 6 153 Niacin 94. Kee) 34
Ascorbic acid bw ilk 5 145
hs
4 he intakes ef calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, .and ascorbic acid were much below recommended allowances, One hundred fifty-four subjects were in this "under 76% of NRC recommended allowances group" for fat and calcium. Others in the same group were as.follows: 153 subjects for riboflavin, 145 subjects for ascorbic acid, 135 subjects for vitamin A, 133 ech ak subjects for phosphorus and 125 subjects for calories. | hy” Cae a
' For the nutrients with average intakes of 90 to 100% or more. of NRC recommended allowances, niacin intakes were met by the greatest number of individuals, Iron had the next highest number of individuals.
DISCUSSION
No attempt has been made in this study to determine whether the diet the Marshallese are consuming-is adequate for their physiological needs. The diets were assessed by comparing the intake records with the National Research Council allowances,
The value and limitations of dietary allowances and their use have been a subject of many discussions. Criticisms may be made in the use of these dietary standards for comparison, as these standards were drawn up primarily from. _studies of individuals and populations of the western world. Little is known about the physiological requirements of nutrients of the Marshallese. These requirements are influenced in varying degrees by body size, climate, activity, and other. factors.
In order to have some information of body sizes of Marshallese, 255 male and female Marshallese, from the ages of 9 months through 70 years, participants in this dietary SuEVeY'» were weighed and measured by the author.
Table 7 shows the weights and heights of 255 male and female — Marshallese subjects from 9 months through 70 years of age. The weights are given in pounds showing the range and average; heights are given-in. inches showing the range and average,
big rhe a) aL paa ae |
el a ai TABLE 7. | | WEIGHTS AND HEIGHTS OF MARSHALLESE SUBJECTS H by Mary Murai Age | Number of Wed cht. (aaunda) Height (inches) (yrs.) nex. sub jects Range “Average Range Average 9 months M&F aor 20-25 Pike 16-20 eae 143 M Pal 20~30 25 20-30 oe rk 35 20-33 De 22-30... 27, 4-6 OM. 6 30-35 32 36-40... 2° BS. Ro F 6 25-30 27 34-40 scene 7-9 M ae 42-60 50 ic alain Y oe a 40-60 ee ae a) Fs aes 10-12 M 9 ae 58-60 59 ee Se OF is 64-88 77 51-59 55 | rem Mv 8 70-120 99 5566 x: F 23 771-130 103 52-64 59 16-20 M 56 95-164 | ii: MaRS . 6h . F 12 - 80-146 TOS) abil by a oe eg Reo 60 21-60 M 3h Hfotey es Ohi oe wei a bl ‘FR CL aw <6) 04 fo3° 37 ple caging 61-70. 3. 8 130-158 es) 59-67. 63 | ie 9 110-120 115 eee ae, | eG |
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The average weights of Marshallese were compared with average weights of Americans of the same age group to obtain the difference between the Marshallese and Americans,
Table 8 shows the differences between average body weights of the Marshallese and American subjects of the same age group. Fable ee Gomparison of yeneee Weights of Harshal lees: with Weights of
Americans Given for Each Age Group in the Table of Recommended Daily Allowances, National Research Counsil.
Weights of“ Weights of = Difference | ge MR ie americans. « Marshal leso Pe eg Age. groups -Meieht in lbs, Welehtin ibs. § bs. I en ee ne POG OSIM ANS SORES MAeenbee eaten tiahiestens tly ae : pe 4 to 6 gti 42 bate 30 ~12 7 to 9 hee A ea 49 Ze 10 to 12 eae Hea 76 es 68 ~10 18 to 15 (girls) io ai 103 By 16 to 20 (girls) a) ee — 109. “13 13 to 15 (boys) ._ | ua LOS Poy cas 99. w 9 16 to 20 (boys) © * a it 123° ~18 21 and over (femaies) Ny aed Reece es oo 21 end over meee (154 bie ae 138 . -16
Marshallese sub jects. had smaller body sizes when compared with © American sub jects” of the same, age group.: ‘The exceptions were the I to 3 years old group, and the females 21 and over age group. The average weights were the same for whe Marshallese and American - Subieote in these two ETOUPS »
In spite ‘of these differences in body size, some yardstick had | to be used for comparison and since recommended allowances represent certain levels of intake considered desirable, they were used as standards for this study, As stated in "Recommended Dietary Allowances, Revised 1948" (N.BoC. Reprint and Circular Series No. 129, Oct. (1948);
"The quantitative data in the accompanying table are intended to represent exactly what is implied in a literal interpretation of the words recommended dietary allowances, Hence in contrast to some previously promulgated standards, the data in the following table are rather to be understood as representing levels of nutrient intakes which the Food and
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Nutrition Board recommends as normally desirable goals or objectives.
"The recommendations are not called trequirements* because they are intended to represent not merely the literal (minimal) requirements of average individuals, but levels enough higher to cover Substantially all individual variations in the requirements of normal people.
"The figures here recommended are, therefore, generally higher than average requirements but generally lower than the doses used to meet needs created by pathological states of certein environmental con~ ditions or in compensating for an earlier period of depletioneeec."
Other dietary standards have been used by international groups, the two most frequently used for references are the standards proposed by the Committee on Nutrition of the British Medical association (9) and the Canadian standards approved by the Canadian Council on Nutrition (10).
Goldsmith (11) compared the American, British and Canadian dietary standards,in her paper. "The most striking difference is the much lower recommendation for ascorbic acid in the Canadian and British Steudards than in the Recommended Dietary Allowances of this country. The recommended intakes for the B vitamins and for calcium are also lower, especially in the Canadian. The recommended intake of vitamin A is lower in the Canadian than in the other standards, since the recommendation is made in terms of carotene, rather than in terms of a mixed diet furnishing vitamin A as 2/3 carotine and V/s preformed vitamin A, recommended intake of iron is also lower in. the Canadian standard. These ‘differences are in line with expectations since the Canadian standard is a nutritional floor and approaches minimal requirements. The British standard is an allowance for maintenance of good nutrition in the average person, and the United States allowances are designed for maintenance of good nutrition of substantially all normal persons and include a margin of Safety."
Calories
The Committee on Calorio Requirements of the Food and Agriculture Organization . (FAO) of the United Netions (12) has formulated a standard for calories. "The recommendations made.....represent a considered attempt to provide practical guidance on the requirement of population and pepulation groups. The method followed was to assign numerical value to the calorie requirements of a fully defined "reference', and to indicate (also in numerical form) the adjustments to these values which may be made in order to calculate the requirements of individuals differing from the reference in age, body size, temperature of environment, amd activity."
"The reference man and woman are 25 years old and live in the temperate zone at a mean annual external temperature of 10 degrees Centi- grade. They consume a well~balanced diet and are fully healthy. The degree of activity of the man is that involved in occupation in light industry; that of the woman is the activity appropriate to general household duties or light industrial work, The mean calorie requirements of the reference man and woman on a year-round basis are judged to be 3,200 and 2,300 calories per day respectively."
\
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"It is, estimated that requirements in the third trimester of pregnancy are increased by approximately 450 calories daily. In lactation, requirements are increased by 1,000 calories daily, this figure being based on the assumption that the period of lactation is 6 months.and the average quantity of milk given by: the mother at 3 weds after Sore is 850 milliliters,"
"The reference children belong to the same type of population as the reference adults and live in the same climatic environment. These values are the *recommended allowantces’ of the Netdouen Heveer ce U. S&S. Ae" : Soe tall
"The reference adolescents are 18 years old and weigh 60 kilo=- grams (boys) and 50 kilograms (girls). In health and activity they are similar to the reference children, The requirements of such adolescents - at 16 and 19 years of age inclusive are judged to be 3,800: een ie td calories for boys and girls respectively."
"Calorie requirements are re by body size, It is recommended that the formulae E = 152.0 (W)9°75 (Men) and EB = 123.4 (W) 0.73 (Men) and E = total calorie requirements and W = body weight (kg.), be used to calculate the requirements of adults: aceondine to body size when their ag tivd by. is thet of the reference,”
“No Ba quaunente for body size should be aopiiea to children under 16, During the years from 16.to 20, body size is approaching final Mature dimensions, In fopulations in whieh the average weight of adolescents is less than that of the reference adolescents, adjustments should be made on the basis of the mature size attained at age 25 ravher than the actual weighs of adoleseenis, In such circumstances, requirements for males from 16 to 19, inciusive should be reckoned as 120 percens of the requirements of well-nourished active males of 25 vears in the same ~ population, the corresponding percentage for females being 105,”
A scale to allow for the effect of increasing age on calorie requirements is suggested. According to this scale, requirements at 25 years of age are decreased by 7.5 percent for every 10 years beyond the age of inn
"The existence of an aoproximats a linear: Moles (auBht bétween ° calorie expenditure and meen annual. external:teaperature was assumed. It is recommenced tentacvively thai: for every 2O. duogices "departure in mean” annual temoerature from the roference. sempdvature of 10:degrees ‘Centigrade, requizements spould be adjusted ‘by DS peracrt of requirements at the referense level, the 5 percent being: subtracted for oo ian geo and added for-Lower tempsravures,"
‘Whe degree of activity directly influence calorie requirements, It is considered thats in most poovlations the mean activity will approximate tho degree of activTivy assigned to the reforense acults. No adjustments should be mace for acsivity unier 16 years of..age. In the scale. recommeded Tor children, the activity.of boys and girls is assumed to be the same under the age of 13, though im seme populations the. haprricgtas of boys. erseods that of girls at an earlier age than this," i
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The above recommendations were followed and the calorie requirements of Marshallese were calculated by taking into consideration body size, age, and environmental temperature, Using the equation:
E = (1.1875 = 0,0075A) (1,050 = 0.005T) a W’5, where E = total requirements, A &% age in years, Tz temperature in degrees Centigrade, W = body weight in kilograms, The mean. external temperature of the Marshall. islands was fi essa as 27 degrees Centigrade. si bleaiogs
The calorie fequirenenes of Marshallese of various ages RE
in the Marshall Islands caleulated by using the FAO So for oe eta requirements are summarized in Table 9.
Table q
Caipukated Calorie ee for Marshallese of Various. Ages one. in mee Marshall Islands and NRC Recommended Calorie. Requirements
Calculated a ea 21
Age Weight Calorie Requirements Requirements kgo- calories Adolescents mee . Men AGO: ete cmiiie eins 3434 lies san aE Women extend Gea 2Q) te 14 wwe 2268 ok fn HOO Pregnant women - 16-20 2713 | as Se Lactating women 16~20 3263 . 3000 Adults
Women 21. 56 2195 24,00 Pregnant women 21 56 2645 a a OO
- Lactating women . 21 56 3195 3000 Women aa 56; He Ist hs 24,00 Pregnant women 35 56 2421 | 24,00 Lactating women 35 56 2971 3000 Women 45 56 ‘ 1810 2000 Women 65 52 114 2000 | Men 2a: 63 2949 3000 Men 35 63 2679 3000 Men 45 63 214,33 :’ 3000 Men 65 63 2003 2400
In most cases, the calculated calorie requirements were lower than the "recommended allowances" of the National Research Council,
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Protein
. The protein standard for ‘the: ‘tédommended aL aeenee for. adults are ibeged on 1 gms. protein daily’ for ‘each ‘Kilogram of body weight, which is a generous allowance, ‘Leitch ana: Duckworth (13) concluded in their study that,-an average maintenance’ requirement of about 50 QMS » per day per normal adult. was sufficient. ‘Hegsted,. Tsongas », Abbott, and Stare (14) did experiments on protein. requirements ‘of adults on 26. adults ranging in age from 19 to 50 years; They were on 4 ‘basal low-protein diet with soproximately 50% of the protein Supplied by white bread, 12% by other cereals, 30% by vegetables, and 8% by fruits, protein requirements were between 30 and 40 gms, per 70 kilograms of body weight, With supplements of meat or wheat germ added to the above dist, even less total food pro~ tein was required for healthy maintenance, They concluded that the National Research Council allowance for protein of 1 gm. per kilogram of body weight was generous and the allowance sould be redused to 50 gms. for a 70 kilogram adult and still oe ee 30% a ae above requirement,
Calcium
The National Research Council’s recommended allowances aims to cover the needs of not less than about 99% of the normal adults of the Us. Se population. Leitch (15). concluded that the maintenance requirement is approximately 0.55 gms, of calcium per day for normal human adults regardless of body weight. The calcium requirements are being reviewed again by a subcommittee of the Committee of Dietary Allowances of the Food and Nutrition Board, New allowances will be recommended soon.
Vitamin A ile a
Sherman (16) in his book says, "There is no reason to doubt and good reason to suppose that, in human as in rat nutrition, best results in long-term experience will eee at least 2 to 4 times as much Vitamin A value as suffices for minimal adequacy, If the minimal ade quate amount is taken, it is about 3000 I. U. for normal:adult maintenance » _ from 6000 to 12,000 would be scientifically more logical allowance (than the 5000 Te U, allowance of the National Research Council) to provide both for individual variations in requirement and for the maintenance of such a J bodily reserve as has been found to be favorable to higher health and "o longer life,* eg
“Vitamin A values of dietaries depend largely upon the precursor carotene rather than on vitamin A itself, and the doubts as to the complete- ness of availability of these precursors in digestion and assimilation, one will logically prefer to have his intake of vitamin A value nearer the top than the bottom of the 6000-12,000 I. Ue zone..e"
"Also it is scientifically sound in principle to provide liberal intakes of a nutrient which seems to. be, involved in so many different functions and in so many major and minor ills as is vitamin A, even if some of these involvements are not entirely clear.”
= Giles
Thiamine
Daum et al (17) concluded that the minimal daily thiamine requirement of young adults of twenty-one to thirty-eight years of age, weighing 55 to 64 kg. and requiring approximately 2500 calories per day for maintenance of body weight was adjusted to be very close to 0.63 mg.
_ thiamine or on the order of 0.25 to 0,50 mg, thiamine per 1000 calories of mixed diet. The NRC allowance of thiamine is approximately 100 per~ cent more than the minimal requirements, The minimum daily requirements, Food and Drug Administration, Federal Security Agency, (18) for thiamine is eer as 1.00 mg. daily = adults,
Riboflavin
Horwitt et al (19) observed the effects of diets restricted in riboflavin in 15 male subjects, They studied the excretion of riboflavin in the urine and suggested that the riboflavin requirement of a resting adult to be between 1.1 and 1.6 mgs. per day. They concluded that allowances below 0.6 mg. per day are insufficient to support normal tissue -repair, and that a reserve of riboflavin could not be maintained on levels ‘of intake below 1.1 mge The NRC allowances are based on ‘body moient and allow about 25 percent margin of safety.
Niacin
The amino acid tryptophane can be converted to niacin in. the
human body, therefore, the requirements for niacin depends on intakes of ~ food Paareiaing PEE RODE STs
The NRC ei dade of eéin was set at ten times the corresponding allowances of thiamine for both sexes and all ages. According to Sherman (20),-"As yet, we do not know: (1) what part of the niacin requirement will be *biologically enriched’ in niacin by the bacteria of the digestive tract; or (2) the degree of trustworthiness of present estimates either of the niacin requirements of human nutrition or the niacin content of some types of food." |
Ascorbic acid The following data are given by Sherman (21) as standards for ascorbic acid: "A daily intake of 25 milligrams of vitamin © by normal adults (other than women. in pregnancy and lactation who noed decidedly more) or 1.0 milligrams per 100 calories of food ‘in family dietaries, might be regarded as a minimum sufficing for prevention of the gross signs of scurvy. Fifty milligrams for adult maintenance and 2 milligrams per 100 calories for family. dietaries, might be regarded as medium standard. One hundred milligrams per adult, or 4 mg. per 100 calories of family food, one may approximate the presumably optimal allowance sufficing to keep the body ‘*saturated’,"
"The values given in the (National Research Council's) Table represent a conservative appraisal of all the evidence that is available, but . they shone not be _regatage as *saturation' saihbanininal More generous
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intekes (may) result in considerably higher concentrations in the tissues," (22)
Goldsmith (23) concluded "that the purposes and philosophy behind any dietary standard must be appreciated for proper application.
In some situations, standard based on minimal requirements are useful and in others, standards representing nutritional goals are more durable,
For certain nutrients, recommendations should be related to body size,
for caloric consumption, or for still others, to active metabolizing tissue or to the individual. ‘There are many gaps in our knowledge of even
minimal requirements and very few quantitative data relative to optimal needs,"
SUMMARY
Weekly dietary records of one hundred wih oae sunierts of Majuro village, Majuro Island, Marshall Islands, from the ages of 1 through 70 years of age, were studied: for daily quantities of calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, Lron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid. These figures were then compared with National Research Council Allowances.
Taking the total group of one hundred sixty-one subjects, the following results were obtained when daily intakes were compared with National Research Council allowances:
» oh Mee Waloricas one hundred fifty-sevén sub jects or 97% were ; i below allowances, four Sub jects or 3% were above allowances.
2, Protein: . one hundred thirty. sub jects or 81% were below : ae allowances, thirty-one subjects or 19% were above | allowances.
7B. . Pate one ‘hundred fifty-seven anaeate or: 97% were below ant allowances, four sub jects or 3h were above allowances.
4. Calcium: one hundred fittp-ouene ee iehic or 98% were below allowances, three subjects or 2% were above allowances,
“ "5, Phosphorus: one hundred fifty-three subjects or 95% were he es a below “allowances, eight sub jects or 5% were above allowances.
Ge i aeinon si one hundred five subjects or 65% were below allowances, fifty-six sub jects or ‘38% were’ ‘above allowances,
7. Vitamin A: one hundred forty subjects or 87% were below allowances, twenty-one subjects or 13% were avove allowances.
86 Thiemine: one hundred thirty-six subjects or 85% were below allowances, twenty-five subjects or 15% were above allowances.
283,
9, Riboflavin: one hundred sixty subjects or 99% were below allowances, one subject or ie was. above allowances»
10, Niacin: seventy-nine subjects or 49% were below allowances, eighty-two subjects or 51% were above allowances.
11, ASsorbie acid: one hundred fifty-one subjects or 94% were
below allowances, ten subjects or eh were _.
above allowances.
The percentage of subjects who failed to meet NRC allowances was greater than those who did meet allowances for the following nutrients: calories, protein, fat; calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid.
Ninety-nine percent of the subjects were below allowances for riboflavin; 98% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium; 97% of the subjects were below allowanses for calories and fat; 95% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus; 94% of the subjects were below allowances for ascorbic acid; 87% of the subjects were below allowances for vitamin A; 85% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine; 81% of the subjects were below allowances for protein; and 65% of the subjests were below allowances for iron.
Eighty=two subjects or 51% were above allowances for niacin, and seventy-nine subjects or 49% were below allowances,
There were forty-eight children, males and females, forty-six males and sixty-seven females. Of these, there were twenty~four male . and female children between the ages of 1 through 3 years of age; twelve - male and female children between the ages of 4 through 6 years of age; six male and female children between the ages of 7 and 9 years of age; and six male and female subjects between the ages of 10 through 12 years of ages
Of the males, there were three subjects, ages 13 through oe years of age; two subjects, 16 through 20 years; thirty-three pubjectses 21 to 60 years; eight Sub lence 61 to 70 years of Agen
Of the fameiees there were three subjects, 13 through 15 years; four subjects, 16 through 20 years; thirty-six subjects, 21 to 60 years; | nine subjects, 61 through 70 years; four pregnant Renee BRE / eleven lactating women,.
Taking each age group separately, the following results were obtained: when daily intakes were compared with National ‘Research Council - Allowances:
I, Children.
Ge kt BOS. years of ages One hundred percent of the sub jects were below allowances for'calcium and phosphorus with all twenty-four subjects below allowances. Ninety-six percent of the subjects were below
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allowances for fat and riboflavin; 92% of the subjests were below allowances for calories; 88% of the subjects were below allowances for protein; 83%
of the subjects were below allowanées for both vitamin & and ascorbic acid; "5% of the subfests were below allowances for thiamine; and 62% of the
i Subjects were below allowarees. for iron. Only 33% of the subjects were below
allowances for niacin and 67% were above allowanses,
be 4 to: 6 years of SOE age. Qne hundred percent of the subjects - were below. allowances for “ealcium, phosphorus, and riboflavin, with twelve
. subjects below allowanses. Ninety~two percent of the subjects were below
allowances for fat and calories; 83% of the subjects were below allowances «>for vitamin Ae. 75% cf. the sub jects . were below allewances for thiamine; and
-» 67%" of the subjects were below allowances for protein and ascorbic acid.
Thirty-three percent of the subjects were below alloviances for, iron: and 42% of the subjects were below.allowances. for niagin.s ‘Sixty-seven: percent of the subjects: were above eT toneness Ox. Aron and ia of the Sub jects were aoe allowances for niagins .. te ees aa ee
Go 9 to 9 years of age. Qne inital percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, fat; phosphorus, riboflavin and ascorbic acid with six subjects below allowances. Eighty-three percent of the - subjects were below allowanees for thiamine; 67% of the subjects were below allowances. for calcium ‘and, Vitamin A. For protein and:iron, the percéntage
of subjects were equally divided with:50% below and. 50% above ni Onanecee All subjects or 100% were above, allowances for nia¢ins © s
ds “10 to: to: ee: years ibe ALC. One hundred percent of the subjects Were below allowances for calories, fat, calcium, riboflavin and ascorbic acid with six subjects below allowances. Eighty-thres percent of the sub- jects were below allowances for protein, phosphorus, vitamin A and thiamine. Sixty-seven percent of the sub jects were below allowances for iron. Thirty=three percent of the eubsecrs were below allowances for niacin and. 67% were above, allowances. cuits Pe eer este ie
A 5
Tse Malies 0:
a. 13 to 15 years of agee One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitemin A, thiemine, riboflavin and ascorbic acid.” Sty easou ‘¢ percent of the eee were below allowances for ites He
bd. 16 to-20 years of age. One hundred percent of the subjects _ were below allcwaences for calories, fat, calcium, riboflavin and ascorbic — acid; 50% of the subjects were below allowances for protein, phosphorus, a iron, alsa aalcs thiamine and niacin,
Cs 21 to 60 years ‘ot | age. One hundred percent of the. subjects were below allowances for calories and riboflavin; 97% of the subjects were below allowances for fat, calcium and ascorbic acid; 91% of the subjects were below allowances for :phosphorus and vitamin A; 85% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine; and 82% of the subjects were below allowances for protein, Seventy percent of the subjects were below allowances for niacin and 64% of the subjects were below sie (ote for iron,
~85-
de 61 to 70 years of ages One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, protein, fat, e¢alcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, riboflavin and ascorbicgiacid; 88% of the subjeuts were below allowances for thiamine; and 75% of the subjests were below allowances for iron, Thirty-eight percent of the subjestse were below allowances for niacin and 62% were above allowances.
IITLe. Females
bik ‘13 to 1 ‘to 15 years of ages - one hundred percent of the subjects Were below eRe ote for galoriss, } protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, ribofiavin and ascorbie acid. Sixty-seven percent of the subjects were below allowances for niaéin, i ee :
b, 16 to 20 years of age, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allcwanees for calories, fat, calcium, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid. Seventy-five percent of the subjects were below allowanses for protein and niacin; 50% were below allowances for both phosphorus and iron,
' Ge ‘21° to 60 years of age. One hundred percent of the subjects Were below allowanees for calcium and riboflavin; 97% of. the subjects were below allowances for calories, fat, phosphorus, and ascorbic acid; 89% of the subjects were below allowanses for vitemin A; 86% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine; 72% of the subjects were below allowances for protein; and 67% of the subjects were below allowances for irons Forty=seven percent of the subjects were below allowanses and 53% were above allowances for niacin.
Ge 61 to 70 years of ag@e One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, fat, calcium, phosphorus, riboflavin and ascorbic acid; 89% of the subjects were below allowanses for vitamin A and thiamine; 78% of the subjects were below allowances for protein and iron, Forty-four percent of the subjects were below allowances for niacin and 56% were above allowances.
6. Pregnant women, One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid. Fifty percent of the Subjects were below allowances for vitamin Av
£. Lastating women. One hundred percent of the subjects were below allowances for calories, protein, fat, calsium, phosphorus, ribo flavin and ascorbic acid; 91% of the subjects were below allowances for vitamin A and thiamine; and 73% of the subjects were below allowances for iron, Forty-five percent of the subjects were below allowances for niacin and 55% were above allowances.
286 RECOMMENDATIONS ee on DIETARY STUDIES
Food conaianaeen in the Mabshel1, Islands is dependent on seasonal changes. due to the ripening of various plant foods, The bread~ fruit season begins in May and is picked through the summer until September, In the latter part of the summer, bwiro and jankwin, the preserved forms are made whieh are eaten after the season is over, particularly in the period from March to May, when food is not so plenti+ ful, In October the pandenus season begins, and they provide the | principal food until March; pandanus is preserved as mokan, In the winter, arrowroot is made into flour. ‘Taro ean be eaten all year round but in the summer breadfruit is preferred, At other times of the year it (taro) is popular, principally in spring and fall, between the breadfruit and pandanus seasons, Thus, nutrient contents of the diets differ at various times of the year.
There is no storage of fresh foods; the usual procedure is to collect food for the day in Majuro villages
Imported foods have become a very important part of their diet. The fcod perve™ns are a combination of local food products and imported foods, |
yin at to Je of the food items commonly consumed by Marshallese ssudied in this dietary survey.
FOOD ITEMS COMMONLY CONSUMED BY MARSHALLESE STUDIED IN THIS DIETARY SURVEY
1. BREADS ibid meinen be
Bread, white
Doughnuts 2. CEREALS AND CEREAL DISS Rice, white Rice, soft - polished waite rice, coconut sap and coconut milk, boiled Jaibo = mixture of coconut sap, coconut milk and. white flour | Se CRACKERS
Soda crackers
aa ae FISH, CRUSTACEA AND SIMILAR FOODS
Marshallese Scientifics Us Common
Name “Name ; eva: Name: — Ail Acanthurus olivaceus Bloch | Surgeon Fish or Tang Autok Chelon vaigiensis (Quoy &
Gaimard) RY | Mullet Baru lep Birgus latro Coconut or Robber Reha a oie crab; Baruwan Cardisoma hirtipes x ghcaihs Just plain land crab Bulok Naso lituratus (Bloch) - Surgeon fish Tang Bwebwe Neothunnus macropterus (Temminck & Schlege) Yellow fin Tuna Chilu Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus) Skipjack | “‘Chiriul’ Turbo setosus Gmelin Cat's eye (most eommon ) Turbo argyrostomus Linne’ Cat*s eye Imim Melichthys vidua (Solander) Trigger fish Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Linnaeus) Jawe Plectropomus truncatus: (Fowler) Jewfish or Grouper Jo Mulloidichthys samoensis (Gtinther) ane Goatfish = Red mullet Kuban Acanthus triostegus triostegus (Linnaeus ) Surgeon fish, Tang Lere Balistidae Trigger fish Likup Cymolutes praetextatus (Quoy & Gaimard) - Wrasse Meret i
(Mera) Family Scaridae Parrotfish Mermer Siganus punctatus (Bloch)
Momo Epinephelus merra Bloch Sea Bass, grouper Molle Siganus rostratus (Valenciennes )
Ikmoui j Scaridae , Parrotfish
Pako probably Carcharhinus
melanopterus (Quoy & Gaimard) Shark
-88.
4. FISH (continued)
Marshalleso S¢ientirze ~~ | eae Common Neme Name... sytney LU Name
Tojo Exocoetidae ..- ea. |. Plying fish
Lukerr Canarium Luhuenum’ Luhuanum (Linné)
“3 DUR RAOIN NU ira 8 Si ‘ q Ey aoan ists ‘er a
Canned Salmon, entire content, natural Sardines, Pacific, entite: content’ "**
Deo Ny ahi a sh ay Mey eos | Sardiies, Pacific, ‘tomato sauce ?* ai aaah
Lesh hie SN ay ch aytlie sd Bene nailing ,., Sardines, Maine, in oi] °° awe) Byatt ; CN crc 0 hy Marin HO Woe a at geen ere y ai Heese Panic ae 2 : igs Sats at Pip as Rae tet aren 5 Pa Ee ct rif . Says Pees ee rity = est 4 ots iy
SEVEN Me Tie — pn (Kabran)
“Rating ~ Jibuki' sha Marshallese varieties pile oo
“Cooking - Moiese ee joe Teva te LUay sists oH oe ee RD Lgl eSrERT tocjac: .,. Breadfrult (ua), WP metereiue w , evel Solty bE beet
Seeded Mt jiwan i __ roasted, erent or boiled |
_.(seeded variety, . Artocarpus , ane teus ) :
ce Batakdak roasted, baked, or boiled (seedless variety, Artoca us ineisus) ;
See ee Bukdrol roasted,’ baked, or boiled
,. (seedless variety, Artocarpus, incisus)
Preserved Bwiro , eben Gosonut sep Jekaro. » - Goconut sep, boiled Jejajeje Limes (Citrus aurantifolia) | .Pandanus (Pandanus sp.) Lojekerer _ te variety |. fresh and boiled Jolibeb fresh and boiled _
Paste bop; mokan |
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-89~
FRUITS (continued)
Papayes (Carica papaya Le)
MEATS, FRESH
Pork
MEAT, SAUSAGE AND SIMILAR PRODUCTS Beef, sorned | Meat, luncheon
Sausage 5 Vienna
waini (Cocos nucifera) ni mere
iu
MILK Milk, canned, evaporated (mostly for infants, not for general population) NUTS Cosonut meat of mature nut drinking fluid of immature mut meat of immature nut embryo of sprouting nut SUGAR
Sugar, white, granulated
SWEETS = CANDY AND SIMILAR FOODS
Candies, hard
Cyrtosperma chamissonis (Schott) Merr.
Taro Wan Kaliklik Cyrtosperma chamissonis (Schott) Merr.
Buroro Cyrtosperma chamissonis (Schott) Merr.
eee een sre ee
13. MISCELLANEOUS
Tea
Good food sonsumption depends on both education and esonomics, Better levels of consumption of the right foods should be taught to pil the people.
le Calories and fat
A constant supply of fuel is required by the body, ‘This need is met by the carbohydrate, fat and protein foods, Carbohydrate and — fatty foods are the chief source of energy as protein is used mainly for body building, The combustion of foods to carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen yields the shergy which permits the body to earry on its activities, The calorie is the standard for the measurement of the energy value of foods and is also used to express the energy requirements of the body,
In this study, from the total of one hundred sixty-one subjects, one hundred fifty-seven subjects of Majuro village or 97% were below NRC allowances for calories for their age and sex.
To increase the caloric intake, food consumption must be increased, especially the foods high in fat and carbohydrate, Fats widely distributed in both plants and animals, and are contained in varying proportions in nearly all the natural foods, Fats constitute — the most concentrated food, They yield two and a half times more salories than carbohydrates or proteins, Fats ars known to be ‘carriers of vitamins and fatty acids which are now recognized to be essential, Carbohydrate focds are good economical fuel sources, while both the carbohydrate and fatty foods have a protein sparing porate
The energy foods are the followiner
le Starches and sugars: c6ereals, macaroni, spaghetti, bread, potatoes, white and sweet; corn, beans, rice, sugar, sugar syrup, coconut syrup, jellies, and jams, fruits and vegetables, especially Cyrtosperma chamissonis (iaraj), breadfruit (ma), bananas (kabran), and arrowroot flour (mokmok) «
2 Fats: vegetable and animal oils; nuts, mature coconuts (waini), flesh of the immature coconut (Mere), and peanut butter,
Zo Protein
Protein, an organie compound which contains nitrogen, is necessary to build, maintain, and repair various tissues of the body. The greatest proportion of the body tissues is composed of protein and it is an indispensable constituent of every living cell.
Out of cone hundred and sixty-one subjects of Majuro village, one hundred thirty or 81% were below NRC allowances for protein.
=
Protein is supplied largely from animal sources, such as meat, poultry, fish, crustacea, eggs, milk, and also from vegetable sources particularly seeds and nuts, Unfortunately, protein foods are expensive food items, but for the money expended, milk is an economical food as it supplies besides protein of high quality, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin D. Children — should have 3 to 4 cups cedars adolescents, boys and girls 1 quart; _ pregnant and lactating women 1 guart; and everyone else 1 to 3 cups daily. Eggs constitute a relatively costly food compared with their contribution . of nutrients, More fresh fish could be included in the diets and dried ~ beans and legumes, such as soybeans, can be a good source of protein. In general, protein from animal sourees are more often of higher quality then those from plant origin.
Protein foods are as follows: meats, eggs, fish, eels, sea fowls, ducks, whales, turtleés,- turtle. OBES, crustacea, nuts, whole cereals, dried peas and beans. Legumes are rich in protein and can be a partial sub- stitute for meat in the diet. Breadfruit, fresh and preserved (bwiro, jankwin, manakajen); breadfruit seeds (0014); sweet potatoes (iaraj): Cyrtosperma chamissonis; coconuts; pandanus (bop, mokan), fresh and paste are sOUrCeSs
3. Calcium and phosphorus *
The two minerals, calcium and phosphorus, are essential for proper bone and teeth development. They also play a part in the regulation of the internal activities of the body.
Calcium participates in blood coagulation, shares in regulation of cardiac and uterine muscle action, is important to capillary permeability, activates many enzymes and is essential for the functioning of voluntary _ and autonomic nervous systems.
Phosphorus is an essential constituent of all cells, is a constituent of various enzymes, is essential for protein metabolism, for formation of phospholipids, participates in the carbohydrate cycle and muscle metabolism, and is interrelated with the action of calcium, vitamin D, and the paras thyroid hormonese
Out of one hundred sixty-one subjects, one hundred fifty-eight subjects or 98% were below allowances for calcium, One hundred fifty- three subjects or 95% were below allowances for phosphorus. Milk is the best source of calcium and it also contains considerable phosphorus. Phosphorus is more generally distributed in both animal and vegetable foods than calcium, Fish is an excellent source of phosphorus and meat is a very good source. Dried beans are excellent sources of phosphorus. Green leaves have a fairly liberal amount of calcium in relation to their total solids. Bones of small fish supply calcium and phosphorus. Vegetables and fruits are on the whole low in phosphorus. Bananas (kAbran), pandanus (bop), breadfruit (mi) seeded and seedless), breadfruit seeds (colé), gweet potatoes, Cyrtosperma chamissonis (iaraj), coconuts (waini), coconut embryo (iu), flesh of immature coconuts (mere), sweet potato leaves, and other edible green leaves are sources.
4. Iron
_ The amount of iron in the body is small but the role it plays is ~ very important. Iron is an essential part of hemoglobin of blood and the main function is to carry oxygen so that oxidation and reduction processes are carried on within the cells, It is also a component of chromatin which is found.in all living cells and plays a fundamental part in their activity. Lack of iron in the diet can cause nutritional anemiae
Of. one hundred ‘sixty-one Bapjeote of Majuro village, | one hundred five subjects or 65% were below NRC allowancese
Sinse enriched flour was used, iron intakes were higher than expected, Flour is used extensively’ in breads, doughnuts, pancakes, jaibo and other prepared dishes. When flour is.imported from other countries, there is no assurance that it is enriched and iron intake values will be lowered to a great extent, Enriched flour. has added iron, thiamine, ribo= flavin, and niacin, am Hace Piece alll
Iron is found in lean meat, fish, eggs, liver, dried beans, green | vegetables, potatoes, dried fruits and mature legumes. Iaraj (Cyrtosporma chamissonis), mature coconuts (waini), flesh of immature coconuts (mere), breadfruit (m&), fresh and preserved; (bwiro, jankwin and manakajin) and preadfruit seeds (o01é6) are Vegetable ‘gourcese
52 Vitamin A.
‘Vitamin Avis ‘necessary for normal growth and aoveteres It is needed to protect and keep healthy the epithelial cells which line the. tracts and organs of the body. These cells become stratified and keratinized and result in disease, lowered resistance and failure to reproduce. The ~ adaptation of the eye to a change in Light: is related-to vitamin A and is a cause of night blindness. Vitamin A is also important. in the formation of teeth as the enamel forming, cells are like se ining and are affected by a lack of vitamin A,
One hundred sixty-one subjects of Majuro Village, one hundred — forty subjects. or 87% were below NRC eres ;
Orange. ‘yellow and green parts. of prentyt. are. superior to other parts of the plant for vitamin A such as..yellow-squash, -yellow sweet potatoes, yellow turnips, anid yellow corn, '. Bright green thinner leaves are richer than pale ‘thick onese’ Green’ vegetables:. spinach, cabbage, — mustard green and. sweet potato topss” Fruits: bananas, papayas, cantaloupes, pineapples and oranges. Fish liver oils; milk, eggs, flesh of fish such’ as tuna, mackeral, swordfish, whale’, salmon. dud! ‘shark are good sources of vitamin A. Pandanus (bop, moka); ‘fresh and preserved; breadfruit (ma, bwiro, jankwin and manake jin), fresh and preserved are good sOUurcese
6. Thiamine
Thiamine is involved in carbohydrate metabolism and is essential for maintenance of good appetite, normal digestion and intestinal tonus.
-93-
It is also necessary for growth, fertility and the normal functioning of the nervous tissue.
-. Of one hundred. sixty-one subjects of Majuro viliage, one hundred thirty-six subjects or 85% were below NRC allowances.
Thiamine. added to enriched flour helps to increase the intake of thiamine». White milled rice is one of the most popular foods but is low in thiamine, Converted rice has a higher thiamine value than milled white rice, Enriched rice is now on the market and the effectiveness of improving the diet is still in the experimental stages.
Thiamine is found in the following foods: Animal: milk, liver, kidney, heart, egg yolk and especially pork. Seeds: whole grains, wheat and corn. All nuts. Legumes: beans, peas, and lentils. Bananas (kabran), breadfruit (ma), fresh and preserved (bwiro, jankwin and manakajin); breadfruit seeds (cold); sweet potatoes; iaraj (Cyrtosperma chemissonis); coconut embryo (iu); pandanus (bop, mokan), fresh and paste.
Te mon eyip
Riboflavin along with thiamine and niacin is involved in the oxidation and reduction processes which are concerned with energy metabolism of the tissues, Lack of this vitamin affects growth, the skin, eyes and’ nerves. Dimness of vision, and invasion of the cornea by the capillaries © is caused by a lack,
Of one hundred sixty-one subjects of Majuro village, one hundred sixty or Mes ieee below NRC allowances.
“of all the nutrients studied, riboflavin showed the greatest number of subjects failing to meet WRC allowances. This nutrient intake » was helped by riboflavin in enriched flour, Riboflavin is found in'liver, muscles of animals and fish, milk and eggs. Among the plant sources the . actively growing leaves; legumes, including peanuts are good. “Bananas (kGbran); breadfruit (mE) , fresh and preserved (bwiro, jankwin and manaka jen) breadfruit seeds.(colé); iaraj (Cyrtosperma chamissonis); coconut embryo (iu); pandanus fruit (bop), fresh and paste (mokan) are other sources.
8, Niacin Niacin is essential in the enzyme system of the body. A lack affects the skin, gastro-intestinal tract, and the nervous systeme In
severe cases, pellagra is the result.
Of one hundred be sae subjects of Majuro village, seventy- nine a or 49% were below NRC allowances,
High values for niacin are . found in liver, kidney, lean: missile of meat, fish, poultry, brain, salmon, peanuts, peanut butter, yeast, milk, piemeee leaf type vegetables. Coconut syrup (jekamai); coconut embryo (iu); mature coconut (waini); breadfruit (m&), fresh and preserved (bwiro, jankwin and manakajen); breadfruit seeds (cols); iaraj (Cyrto- sperma chemissonis); pandanus (bop) fresh and paste ineieam )e and sweet
ois
potatoes are sources.
9. Ascorbic acid
Ascorbic acid is involved in the metabolism of intercellular tissue and plays an important part in the structure and Smobdomener of bones and teeth, ae muscle and glandular cine
Lack of ascorbic Beads results in hemorrhage, eeet sees predinoe o teeth with resorbed porotic dentine, malformed and weak bones, and ay degeneration of muscle Piberse
Out of.one hundred Wetysons subjects of Majuro pide pers one . hundred fifty-one subjects or oe Aine below NRC allowances.s
Citrus fruits, such as Hans, orange, grapefruits, lemons, are the best sources,.others are tomatoes, cantaloupes, cabbage, papayas and peppers. Bananas (kabran); coconut sap (jekaro); pandanus (bop), fresh and paste (mokan); breadfruit (ma), fresh and preserved (bwiro, jankwin. and mensiejen)s and coconut SMD Ey O (iu) are sources.
For. Putiire! ‘pllanihinies the target o55 sce it sieions is @ well balanced meale Foods from each group should be eaten daily: the fat and sugars; bread, flour and cereals;: green and yellow vegetables; limes, - papayas and other fruits; vegetables and fruits; milk and milk products; fish, eggs, meat eet ahah
Special attention phould be naka to ae growing shady pregnant .. and lactating women,
The first years of a child's life is a period of very rapid growth and’ good nutrition is important. The Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances. for a child wder 1. year are as follows: calories, 100 calories/2e2 lbse or 1 kilogram; protein, 3. 5/26 @ lbses; calcium 1 gmo3 iron 6 mgs.3 vitamin A 1500 I. U.3; thiamine 0.4 mgso3. riboflavin 0.6 mgs.e; niacin 4 mgse; ascorbic acid 30 mgs.; vitamin D 400 I, U. These allowances can be met by. in- cluding the easily digested foods of the various groups mentioned Bre miauatai.
The few instances in which data were collected, the child was breast fed until about 8 months. Usually a child elcencd at 12 months. In many instances, canned evaporated milk diluted with equal amounts of boiled water, was given as supplementary food to breast feeding. Drinking fluid of the immature nut was taken as early.as three months, At about six months, cooked breadfruit mixed with boiled water and boiled coconut sap was given. At about 11 to 12 months, foods fowmd in an adult diet were given as fast as velerete nee
For growing children all food nutrients imoluadie calories must cover requirements for growth as well as maintenance and activity. Liberal calcium intake is needed by the body of infants and children as they, must retain a large amomt of calcium than of any other building material, A low intake of calcium and phosphorus: during growth will prevent normal .. development and calcification of the bones and teeth. All other nutrients | must be carefully considered for optimum health. — a Selena
-95-
Pregnancy is also a period of growth, There is an extra demand for body building materials and body regulating materials needed for main- tenarnse requirements for the woman, for fetal tissue, and for a reserve for lactation, All nutrient intakes should be liberal.
Lactation requires energy to carry on work of women and energy to manufacture milk. Liberal feeding is not only important for conservation of energy of the mother but may prolong the period of lactation.
om
DIETARY STUDIES OF THREE MARSHALLESE SCHOOLS
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DIETARY STUDY OF FEMALE STUDENTS OF THE MARSHALL CHRISTIAN TRAINING
SCHOOL, RONROQN, MARSHALL ISLANDS _
PURPOSE
1, To determine the nutritional ecmue id of the diet for calories and nutrients; 2. To study food consumption of studnets in a school supervised and financed by Marshallese in order to make a com= parative study of diets of students of a Marshallese school and students of the Marshall Island Intermediate School and Teacher Training School in Uliga, which was supervised by the U. Se Navy; 34. To gather more data about female students as most of the subjects at the Marshall Island Intermediate School were malese
SCHOOL
The students came from all the atolls in the Marshall Islands except Ujelang. The school is owned and financed by the Association of Marshall Island Churches. Financial support is obtained from a fund created by Marshallese Congregational church members paying a dollar a year. School teachers’ salaries and food for faculty and students are paid from this fmdy,
FOOD SUPPLIES i The Council of Majuro village had given the school certain lands and trees, such as breadfruit, coconuts, and pandanus, which are used for food. Bananas, limes, and taro are usually given to the school as gifts from the Council of Majuro village. Church members and churches of the other atolls in the Marshall Islands send arrowroot flour, preserved pandanus and salted fish as gifts.
Supplies such as rice, sugar, shoyu, and flour are bought from the Majuro Wholesale Company at retail prices.
MEALS © Two meals are served to the students daily. Breakfast at about 9:30 asm, and the evening meal at 5:30 pem. One food was usually served at each meal such as soft rice cooked with coconut milk and coconut sap; jaibo, a mixture of flour, coconut milk, and boiled coconut sap; jekara bread made with coconut sap; or rice, Other food that students ate were bought individually at a store that the school maintained for students, where canned fish, crackers, and other food were sold. Schedule of activities for the day 6:00 asm, Rising bell 6:30 asm. Hymn and prayer at girls! dormitory
7:00 acme Cleaning of dormitory
8:00 asm. Bible reading
208.
9:15-10:00 a.m, Breakfast
10:00 a.m. to 12:30 pom. English, arithmetic, geography, music
1225025 OO pame Study, rest, and pley | ! 2s 00=4% 30 Pelle Work period | “Girls - Embroidery, handicraft, or Washing and Aroning inscea ~- Feeding pigs, mer noon and night — Feeding hens, morning, noon and night Carpentry Cleaning grounds: ‘Planting Fishing Building Kitchen ica - : céontng = boys only - one week at a time nal Married students act as supervisors, (Girls do the washing of kitchen utensils. | FOOD PREPARATION Food was prepared at the cookhouse. The cookhouse had facilities for cooking food by baking (umum) or boiling (ainbat). Dried pandanus
husks, wood or coconut husks were used for fuel. After the food was pre= .. . pared, the boys took the food to the girls! dormitory where monitors for. the
day divided the food equally for each girl. Food was then eaten from. enamel;
ware plates or coconut husks. Since there were no dining rooms, the haeey students ate in groups around the school grounds. After eating, each. student ._ washed her own dish in the lagoons In case of rain, the students ate in. the dormitory.
SUPPLEMENTARY FOODS
Pigs and chickens raised on the premises were vsed for food only on special occasions, such as chicken for ee oran and roast pig on New Year's daye
FISHING
The school owned three fish traps; two were always left in the lagoon. The students went fishing with nets on Saturday. Since there
-99~
were no storage facilities;the fish was eaten the day of the catch. Crabs and lobsters were caught at certain times of the year. At low tide, girls gathered clams and shellfish on the coral reefs,
STUDY
Food record method was followed, Food was weighed at each meal on a Chatillon gram scale. Left over food was weighed and subtracted from
the amount originally served. Between meal feedings with quantities eaten were listed,
Forms used were the same as those used in the study at the Marshall Island Intermediate School at Uligas. Food consumption for a
period of one week for each subject was recorded. Medical information was also noted.
Example Student B Age: 19 “Sex: F Marital status: S Address: Maxshall Christian Training School “District: Bbon Weight: 143 lbs, Height: 62 1/2 inches
Medical records Phrsisal complaints: none ° Defects noted on general inspection Eothyma, legs | Hypertrophic tonsils Chest X-ray Negative Tuberoulin skin | T negative C negative H negative Kahn 222 Stools
negative
-100-
Food intake record for Student B from April 2 cies ie 8, 1951
> April 2, 1951 hig
Soft ee Tue 760 ai
Taro eases,
Botwoon meals - - x areas Bobet Weveeticws
Coconut, mature -_—_. 200 gmse april 3, 1951
Soft rice 704 omies
Rice, white, boiled 640 gmse
Between ‘meals
Bananis, Marshallese § 4 Pandanus, fresh $800 gmse -. Candies, “hard ean so ems »
Bread, white 4 eed EMSo
“April | 4, es ee Jaiibo A _ . 650 gms. Soft rice hs et /( S20. ess
Between meals
Bananas, Jibuki FOE Ne 72 Coconuts ee 600 gmso Bread, white elt tee (TOS
April 5, 1951 ~ Soft rice eae: PMB
Jaibo 504 gmse
=101~
Between meals —
Pandanus, fresh
Shellfish, Lukerr
April 6, 1951 Jaibo Rice, boiled white Between meals Bread, white Coconut, embryo, iu
Bread, white
April 7, 1951.
Jaibo Soft rice
Between meals Coconut, mature Bread, white
Fish, Kuban
April 8, 1951 ‘Rice, white, boiled
Between meals Bread, white
Pandanus, fresh
B00 gmse
100 ‘gmSe
440 gmso
224
224
600
686
448
375
560. gMse
gms e gmMSs
EMS »
emSe
omse
emse
EMSe
-102-
Typical Menus Served by School
April 2, 1951
April 5, 1951
Breakfast Breakfast Soft rice Soft rice
Supper Supper Taro Jaibo
April 3, 1951
April 6, 1951
Breakfast Breakfast Soft rice Jaibo Supper Supper Rice Rice, boiled, white
April 4, 1951
April 7, 1951
Breakfast Breakfast Jaibo Jaibo
Supper Supper Soft rice Soft rice
RESULTS
The results of the dietary study of female students at the Marshall Christian Training School, Ronron, Marshall Islands are given in Table 10. patie
The daily quantities’ of, various nutrients per person and come parison with National Research Council Allowances for fifty-two female students from the ages of 10 through 20 years of age are noted,
The subjects are divided into different age groups, giving the number of subjects in each group, sex, range of each nutrient, number of subjects in each group, sex, range of each nutrient, number of subjects in each group, average, NRC allowances and number below allowances for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiemine, riboflavin and ascorbia acid,
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S107
1. CALORIES
For. four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 1413 to 2947 calories, and the average per person was 23500 calories. The average figure was 92% of the NRC allowances of 2500 calories. Three subjects or 5 8 he lee allowances and one or 25% was above the allowances.
For fourteen female subfsects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 1646 to 2391 Serene os end the average per person was 2070 calories. .’ The average figure. was 80% of the NRC allowances of 2600 calories, Fourteen Bubgents or 1007 were below allowances.
For tuaekyafour female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 1578 to 2927 calories, and the average per person was 2178 caloriese The average figure was 91% of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories. Twenty- ah five subjects or 73% were below sivas dg and. nine or 27% were above | Ee aeaene cle
For the total group of fifty-two subjects, forty-two or 81% were below allowances and ten or 19% were above allowances.
2. PROTEIN wie Wheat eas |
For four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 59 to 77. gmse, and. the average per person was 66 gms. The average ei figure was 94% of the NRC allowances of 70 gms. Three subjects or 75% (if were below allowances and one or 25% was above the allowance.
|
For fourteen female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range .:: i
was from 42 to 73 gms., and the average per person was 58 gmse The average i figure was 72% of the NRC allowances of 80 gmsé Fourteen subjects or it 100% were below allowances. ch Uy Fea lbe |
For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range - w.s from 38 to 76 gms., and the average per person was 59 gemse The average bh figure was 79%.of the NRC allowances of 75 gms. Thirty-one or 91% were i) below allowances and three or 9% were above allowances. i
For the total group of fifty-two subjects, forty-eight or 92% were below allowances and four or 8% were above allowances.
Se TURAL
For four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was ‘1 from 30 to 57 gms., and the average per person was 42 pms. The average te figure was 61% of the NRC allowances of 69 ems. Four subjects or 100% ca were below allowances.
OeG For fourteen female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range | | was from 8 to 70 gms., and the average per person was 39 gmse The average u figure was 54% of the NRC allowances of 72 gmse Fourteen subjects or 100% were below allowances.
-108-
For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 7 to 88 gmso, and the average per person was 42 gms. The average figure was 63% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms, Twenty-nine subjects or 85% were below allowances and ave or nome ie above allowances. —
For the total group of fifty-two subjaates forty-seven or 907% were below allowances, and five or 10% were above allowances. .
Arte) A
4.. CALCIUM :
For four female subjects, 10 to 12 ccacel of epee ‘the range was from 334 to 541 mgse, and the average per person was 440 mgs... The average figure was 37% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs. Four subjects. or 100% -were below allowances.
For fourteen female subjects, 13 to 15 yours: of age, ate range was from 205 to 758 mgs., and the average per person was 496 INES. The average figure was 38% of the NRC allowances of 1300 mgs... Fourteen sub= jects or 100% were below allowances.
For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 208 to 731 mgs-, and the average per person was 445 mgs. The average figure was 44% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs, Thirty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances.
h For the total group of oe, i lg Pi tty-bo Sa oes or ” 100% were below allowances. Salt :
5, PHOSPHORUS
oe For four female subjects, ‘10 to 12 years of age, the range was
from 1014 to 1208 mgso, and the average per person was 1132 mgs. The average figure was 94% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs. Three subjects or 75% were below allowances and one or 25% was above the allowance. |
For fourteen female subjects,»13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 904 to 1230 mgs., and the average per person was 1054 mgse The average figure was 88% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs, Thirteen or 93% were below allowances and one subject or 7% was above. the. allowance.
For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 853 to 1728 mgs,, and the average per person was 1102 mgs. The average figure was 92% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs- Twenty~eight subjects or 82% were below allowances and six subjects or 18% were above allowances.
For the total group of fifty-two. subjects, forty-four subjects or 85% were below allowances and eight subjects or 15% were above allowances.
{00-2
6. IRON
For four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 7 to 11 mgs., and the average per person was 9 mgs, The average figure was 75% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. Four subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For fourteen female subjects, 15 to 15 years of age, the range was from 5 to 18 mgs., and the average per person was 9 mgse The average figure was 60% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, Thirtoon subjects or 93% were below allowances and one subject or 7% was above the allowanse,
For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 5 to i4 mgse, and the average per person was 9 mgse The average figure was 60% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. Thirty-four subjects or 100% were below allowanves,
For the total group of fifty-two subjects, fifty-one subjects or 98% were below allowances and one subject or 2% was above the allowance,
7, VITAMIN A
For four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 219 to 3492 I. U., and the average per person was 1796 I. U. The average figure was 40% of the NRC allowances of 4500 I. U. Four subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For fourteen female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 649 to 5156 I. Us, and the average per person was 2845 I. U. The average figure was 57% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I, U- Thirteen subjects or 93% were below allowances and one subject or 7% was above the allowance,
For thirty-four female. subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 144 to 9550 I, U,, and the average per person was 2885 I. U, The average figure was 58% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U. Thirty-two subjects or 94% were below allowances and two subjects or 6% were above allowances.
For the total group of fifty-two subjects, forty-nine subjects or 94% were below allowances and three subjects or 6% were above allowances,
8. THIAMINE
For four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 625 to 1592 megs., and the average per person was 1056 megs. The average figure was 88% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mcgs. Three subjects or 75% were below allowances and one subject or 25% was above the allowance.
For fourteen female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 366 to 1188 mcgs-. and the average per person was 690 mcgs, The average figure was 53% of the NRC allowances of 1500 megs. Fourteen subjects or 100% wore below allowances,
==
For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 348 to 1367 mcgse, and the average per person was 756 megs, ‘The average figure was 63% of the NRC allowances of 1200 megs. Thirty-two subjects or 94% were below allowances and two or 6% were above allowances. .
For the total group of fifty-two ‘subjects, pore gubjects or. 94% were below allowances and three subjects or 6% were above allowances. —
9, | RIBOFLAVIN
For four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 417 to 979 megse, and the average per person was 672 mcgs. The average figure was 31%, of the NRC allowances of Bee MCESe Four subjects or 100% were below allowances. :
For fourteen female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 241 to 799 mcegs., and the average per person was 498 megs, The everee? figure was 25% of the NRC allowances of 2000 MCZSe Fourteen subjects or 100% were below allowances, © Peto:
For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 311 to 922 mcgs., and the average per person was 552 mogs. The average figure was 31% of the NRC allowances of 1800 MOS e Thirty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances. |
‘For the total group of fifty-two subjects, ae subjects or ays 100% were below allowances.
10, NIACIN
For four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was from 9 to 15 mgs., and the average per person was 13 mgs» The average figure was 108% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. One subject or 25% was below the allowance and three Subjects or 75% were above allowances,
For fourteen female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 7 to 16 mgse, and the average per person was 10 mgs. The average | figure was 77% of the NRC allowances of 13 mgs. Ten or 71% were below allowances and four subjects or 29% wi we re above allowances.
For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 7 to 20 mgse, and the average per person was 12 mgs. The average figure was 100% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. Nineteen subjects or 56% were below allowances and fifteen subjects or 44% were above allowances.
For the total group of fifty-two subjects, thirty subjects or 58% were below allowances and twenty-two subjects or 42% were above allowances» 11. ASCORBIC ACID
For four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age, the range was ie
from 11 to 23 mgs, and the average per person was 16 mgs. The average” . figure was 21% of the NRC allowances of 75 mgs. Four subjects or 100% were
-lll-
below allowances.
For fourteen female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was
from 7 to 25 mgss, and the average per person was 80 mgse The average figure
was 21% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs. Fourteen subjects or 100% were below allowances, .
For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 8 to 61 mgs., and the average per person was 22 mgs. The average figure was 27% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs. Thirty-four subjects or 100% were below allowance se
For the total group of pap La iG subjects, fifty-two subjects or 100% were above allowances. :
‘SUMMARY
Weekly dietary records of fifty-two female students of the Marshall Christian Training School at Ronron, Marshall Islands, from the ages of 10 through 20 years of age, were studied for daily quantities of calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid, These figures were then compared with National Research Council Allowances,
Taking the total group of fifty-two students, the following results were obtained when daily intakes were compared with National Research Council allowances;
1. Calories: Forty-two or 81% were below allowances, ten or 19% were above allowancess
2. Protein; Forty-eight or 92% were below allowances, four subjects or 8% were above allowances,
3. Fat: Forty-seven subjects or 90% were below allowances, five subjects or 10% were above allowancese
4. Calcium; Fifty-two subjects or 100% were below allowances.
5. Phosphorus: Forty-four subjects or 85% were below allowances, eight subjects or 15% were above allowancese
6. Iron; Fifty-one subjects or 98% were below allowances, one subject or 2% was above the allowance.
To Vitamin A; Forty-nine subjects or 94% were below allowances, three subjects or 6% were above allowances.
8. Thiamine: Forty-nine subjects or 94% were below allowances, three subjects or 6% were above allowancese
9. Riboflavin: Fifty-two subjects or 100% were below allowances.
-112-
10. Niacin: Thirty subjects or 58% were below allowances, iii y 0) sheave or agaiee above ania)
“ls pyrene ss pedaed Fistyeto: subjects or F 100% were above allowancesns: .) a ated megs “a
All subjects or 100% did not meet NRC allowances for sahaain, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid... Ninety~eight percent of the subjects were below allowances.for iron, 94% of the - BUDS EOue | we re below allowances for. thiamine; and vitamin A. " hee Wee oh a 3 ORE ERR
Ninety-two percent of the subjects were below allowances for protein; 90% of the subjects were below allowances for fats; 85% of. the sub= jects were below allowances for phosphorus; 81% of the subjects were below =; allowances for calories; and 58% of the subjects were below allowances for niacin,
Dh
DIETARY STUDY OF STUDENTS AT THE MISSION SCHOOL, MAJURO VILLAGE,
MAJURO ISLAND, MARSHALL ISLANDS
Bt ; : AN i et ke Ua iep Rise sel | Co ues SMa) meleatt Peat be Pte mcd . 5 A ; ne , : Ua es AEN arte 5 eae wats re HR |
PURPOSE
1, To determine the nutritional adequacy of the diet for calories and nutrientse eh eerie at ma oe
ea FO study food consumption of students in a ‘school. administered a and financed by Marshallese. |
3. To complete the survey of subjects of Majuro Village. —
Ae ey
SUBJECTS
The students were all residents of Majuro Village except for three students who were from Arno atolle This study included twenty-four students-- one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age; ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years . of age; ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age; and three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age. These students lived at the school.
SCHOOL
The school was built by the Council of Majuro Village. The maintenance of the school and the teachers*® salaries are financed by the Marshallese Christian Association..
The students do not pay tuition and were all recommended by church members and the pastor.
Students are responsible for bringing their own. bedding and for buying their own school supplies such as pencils and tablets. The better students go to the Elementary school at Rohron.
Classes are in session from January to the end of May, and from September through December... | isd
The classes are held in the church building from 8 to 11:30 a.mp Subjects taught are: Bible studies, English, arithmetic, and singing. After a year and a half, they continue their.education at the Marshall Christian Training School at Ronron,
FOOD ile
Supplying food to the students is the responsibility of the Majuro Village Council. Students cook their own food at the cookhouse, which is outdoors where an open fire is used. Two.maals are served daily. One in the morning and the other in the evening, Two male students and two female students were cooks on iia On Saturdays, male students went fishing for the school. :
The school owned two pigs and some chickens, which were eaten only on special occasions, The school did not maintain a store where
Ril aes estes
see’
students could buy food for between feedings or to supplement their diets. STUDY |
The interview method was used and food records were kept. Between meal feedings and quantities eaten were listede Method used was the same as that followed for other subjects of Majuro Village. Food consumption records were kept for a period of one week, for each subjects a
FOOD INTAKE RECORD An example of one of the intake records of a student is givens —
TYPICAL MENUS _
This is the same as the intake record. There were no supplementary
feedingsea EXAMPLE FOOD INTAKE RECORD FOR J Name: J Sex; M Age: 15 April ,18;: 1951 Wednesday
Jaibo 5CO gmso Jekara | 1 cup
April 19, 1951
Thursday | Jaibo foo. tas. Rice 300 gmso April 20, 1951 Friday Jaibo ; 500 gmso Rice 300 gmse Sardines, fresh TRIN OE 60 gms. April 21, 1952 Saturday Jaibo | 750, gmse Breadfruit, baked Hi 350 gmsn
Sardines, canned om "TCO! ess
-115- . | i
April 22, 1951
Sunday Breadfruit, baked 400 gms, Sardines, canned 100 gmsy | Bread 4 Ozse i
April 23, 1951 |
Monday i Jaibo 600 gmso Soft rice 800 gmso i Jekara 1 cup (
| April 24, 1951 ee i
i
Tus sday if
jist
Rice 700 gmsa My f ti
Breadfruit, baked 300 emss et if
RESULTS °
The results of the dietary study of students at the Mission Ni School, Majuro Village, Majuro Island, Marshall Islands are given in Table ll. (Fi
SS ne
area lero RT eR
The daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances for twenty-four students from the ages of 13 through 20 years of age are notod, i
The subjects are divided into different age groups, giving the number of subjects in each group, sex, range of each nutrient, number of subjects in each group, averages, NRC allowances, number below allowanses and percent of subjects below allowances for salories, protein, fat, ih calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid. i
1. Calories .- AX
For one male subjest, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily intake (\ was 1098 calories, which was 34% of the NRC allowances of 3200 dalories. This subject was below allowances. For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 4 932 to 1912 calories, and the average per person was 1332 calories. The Att average figure was 35% of the NRC allowances of 3800 calories, Ten subjects Na or 100% were below allowances.
For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was tty from 930 to 1340 calories, and the average per person was 1217 calories.
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The average figure was 47% of the NRC allowances of 2600 calories, Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 1172 to 1420 calories, and the average per person was 1277 calories. © The average figure was 53% of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances.
Of the total group of twenty-four subjects, twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
2a Protein
For one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily intake was 23 gms., which was 27% of the NRC allowances of 85 gms, This subject was below the allowance, fy ”
For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from | 20 to 38 gms., and the average per person was 28 gms. The average figure was 28% of the NRC allowances of 100 gms. Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from: 25 to 38 gms., and the average per person was 29 gms, The average figure © was 36% of the NRC allowances of 80 gms. Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was’ | from 29 to 33 gms., and the average per person was 31 gms. The average ~ figure was 41% of the NRC allowances of 75 pms, Three subjects or 100% were below allowanses. |
For the total group of twenty-four subjects, twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances.
36 Fat
For one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily intake was 7 gms., which was 8% of the NRC allowances of 89 gms, This subject was below the allowance,
For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 5 to 66 gms., and the average per person was 19 gms. The average figure was 18% of the NRC allowances of 105 gms. Ten subjects or 100% were below allowance sa
For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 5 to 16 ems., and the average per person was 8 gmse The average figure was 11% of the NRC allowances of 72 gms. Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances. | .
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 6 to 16 gms., and the average per person was 10 gms, The average figure was 15% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances.
LT
For the total group of twenty-four subjects, twenty-four or 100% were below allowances.
4, Calciun
For one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily intake was 228 mgs., which was 16% of the NRC allowances of 1400 mgs. This subject was below the allowances ia ipa ci eee
For ten = subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 116 to 195 mgs., and the average per person was 148 mgse The average figure was 11% of the NRC allowances of 1400 mgs. Ten subjects or 100% were below ioqeciimaitaiads
For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 122 to 419 mgs., and the average per person was 209 mgs. The average figure was 16% of the NRC allowances of ie mgs» Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances. ‘
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 136 to 170 mgs., and the average per person was 157 mgs. The average figure was 16% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For the total group of twenty-four subjects, twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
5. Phosphor«s
For one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily intake was 493 mgs., which was 37% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs. This subject was below the allowance, ;
: - For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 324 to 699 mgs., and the average per person was 453 mgs. The average figure was 34% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgse Ten subjects or 100% were below allowance sx
For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 402 to 612 mgse, and the average per person was 484 mgs; The. average figure was 40% of the NRC pe eee S of 1200 eee Ten subjects or 100% were below allowance ss oe
2 For three female aubyeove, 16 to BO sears of age, the range was from 455 to 524 mgse, and the average per person was 484 mgs. The ‘average figure was 40% of the NRC Be PevENCes | of iene Mgse Three subjects or 100% were below allowances. we ae
For the total group of twenty-four subjects, twenty-four or 100% were below allowances.
-122- Ge Iron
For one Tale subject, 13 to 15 years oF AZO, ral daily: intake | was 7 mgse, which was 47% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgse This subject was below the allowance.
For ten male subjeots, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was _ from 5 to 12 mgse, and the average.per person was 7 mgs. . The. average
figure. was 47% of the NRC allowances of 15.mgs. Ten subjects or 100%... © *: were below allowances. ate fe oa
For ten female subjects, 13.to 15 years of age, the range was from. ‘4 to 8 mgs., and the average per person was 6 mgs. The. JAVBTBES figure
was 40% of the NRC allowances. of 15. mgs. Ten subjects or Loommere bedom allowances.
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, there.is no ‘range of nutrient value given. The average per person was 7 mgse The average . figure. WAS, AT, ef the NRC allowances of 15 mgse Three subjects or. 100% were below allowances.
For the tatal group of aE nee ig ect inline ape et? or 100% were below aL EOuBRC es
To Meta A
For one ene aubaeee. 13 to 15 years. of age, the vata intake was 50 I. Uo, which was 1% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U. This subject was below the allowance,
For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 10 to. 66 T., Wey and the average per. person was 29 I. U. The average dai. figure was 035% of the NRC allowances of 6000 I, U._ Ten subjects or 100% . were below Gee
For ten female bee 13 to 15 years of age, the range Was: : from 19 to 51 I. Ue, and the average per person was 40 I. U. The average « figure was O. 8% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. Us» Ten subjects or 100% . were below allowances.
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the aneekaae a from 40 to 735 Te Ue, and the average per person was 54 1. U. The.average: figure was 1% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U. Three subjects or 100%. - were below allowances.
For the total group. of twenty-four SHOURS ‘wonty-four or
100% were ‘below allowance se
8. Thiamine
For one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily intake was 565 mogse, which was 38% of the NRC allowances of 1500 megs. This subject was below the allowances
Beep an
For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 393 to 993 megs., and the average per person was 650 megs, The average
figure was 38% of the NRC allowances of 1700 mcgs. Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 336 to 820 megse, and the average per person was 633 megs, The average
figure was 49% of the NRC allowances of 1300 megs. Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances, wn
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was
from 652 to 1064 mcgs.e, and the average per person was 840 mcgse The average
figure was 70% of the NRC allowances of 1200 megse Three subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For the total group of twenty-four subjects, twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
9. Riboflavin
For one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily intake was 449 mcgs., which was 22% of the NRC allowances of 2000 mcgs. This subject was below the allowance.
For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 263 to 584 megs.e, and the average per person was 452 megs, The average
figure was 17% of the NRC allowances of 2500 mcgse Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 235 to 557 megse, and the average per person was 450 mcgs. The average
figure was 22% of the NRC allowances of 2000 megs. Ten subjects or 100% were beiow allowances,
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 465 to 586 mcgs., and the average per person was 530 megs. The average figure was 24% of the NRC allowances of 1800 megs. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For the total group of twenty-four subjects, twenty-four or 100% were below allowances.
10 e Niacin
For one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily intake
was 11 mgs., which was 73% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. This subject was below the allowance,
For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 8 to 13 mgs., and the average per person was 10 mgse The average figure
was 59% of the NRC allowances of 17 mgse Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances.
ey ah
For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 9 to 12 mgs., and the average per person was 11 mgse The average figure was 85% of the NRC allowances of 13 mgss Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 10 to 11 mgse, and the average per person was 10 mgs. The average figure was 83% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. Three subjects or 100% were below allowances,
For the total group of twenty-four subjects, twenty-four dublecue or 100% were below allowances.
il. Ascorbic Acid
For one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age, the daily intake was 29 mgs., which was 32% of the NRC allowances of 90 mgs. This subject was below the allowance.
For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 3 to 21 mgsa, and the average per person was 12 mgs. The average figure was 12% of the NRC allowances of 100 mgs. Ten subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 4 to. 20 mgs., and the average per person was 15 mgse The average figure was 19% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgse Ten subjects or 100% were below allowance se
For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 7 to 20 mgse, and the average per person was 12 mgs. The average figure was 15% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgse Three subjects or 100% were below allowanceso
For the total group of twenty-four subjects, twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances.
, SUMMARY
Weekly dietary records of twenty-four students of the Mission School, Majuro Village, Majuro Island, from the age of 13 through 20 years of age, were studied for daily quantities of calories, protein, fat, calciun, phosphorus, iron, Vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid. These figures were then compared with National.Research Council Allowances.
Taking the total group of twenty-four students, the following results were obtained when daily intakes were issiiacuiebe with National Research Council Allowances:. :
1. Calories; Trenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowancese
2. Protein: Twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances.
uya5.
3. Fat: Twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances.
4. Calcium: Twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances,
5. Phosphorus: Twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowancese
6. Iron; Twenty-four subjeots or 100% were below allowances,
7. Vitamin A; misery aeoue subjects or 1odWere “heed allowance se "Be Thiamine: Twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances. 9. Riboflavin: Twenty-four Sundeote or 100% were below atvinnsOe. 10. Niacin; Twenty-four subjects or 100% were below allowances. lle ‘Ascorbic acid: Twenty-four subjects or ' 1O0f were pacee allowances, 'All twenty-four subjects or 100% did not meet NRC allowances for any
of the nutrients studied, namely, calories, protein; fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, Vitamin A, amines riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid.
~126-
DIETARY STUDY OF STUDENTS OF THE: MARSHALL -ISLAND INTERMEDIATE
SCHOOL AND THE. TEACHER TRAINING SCHOOL :-.. - PURPOSE
1. To determine the nutritional adequacy of the diet for calories end nutrients; .2.. To compare total calories and nutrients. of this school which was supervised by the United States Navy with others supervised by Marshallese; {ie this school, the dietary..patterns had changed from the use of native foods to the use of imported foods; / 5» To complete the survey _on Majuro, village since most of the children of. ages.13 to 15 were at school.
SUBJECTS |
“ . The subjects were students.of. the. Intermediate. school who were on scholarships from twenty-four islands and atolls of the Marshall Islands.
. The..teacher. trainees were also included,. The study included, 87 students.
_ There were 72 male students; of these, 11 students were from 13 to 15 years. ' of age, 48 students were 16 to 20 years of age, and 13 students over 20... - years of age. There were 15 female students; of these, 6 students were 13 to 15 years of age, 8 students were 16-20 years of age; and 1 over 20 years of age.
SCHOOLS
The school was located at Uliga, which was the naval base, The Intermediate school was composed of the 7th and 8th grades; while the teacher trainees were on rotation, spending one year as teachers in the field and one year as trainee in the Teacher Training school. The school was financed by funds which were included in the Navy budget for the - Marshall Islands. The food allowance for each student was about ten dollars per month. An increase to about thirteen dollars per person had been anticipated, Food supplies were secured through the Naval Supply Office. Canned fruits and vegetables, evaporated milk, sugar, rice and shortening were available, Fresh fruits and vegetables could be ordered but since they were sent on logistic flights once a week, it was difficult to supply the whole school with these items. The students were given three dollars per month for their toilet articles and for other personal items, This allowance did not give them enough money to indulge in between meal feedings, so they were dependent on three meals a day at school for their nutritional requirements. The students lived in dormitories at the school.
ACTIVITIES OF STUDENTS
The daily schedule for the students was as follows;
6:30 Ae Mo Reveille 6:30-7:30 ac mo Clean dormitory and yard 7:30-8:00 ae Mo Breakfast
8:45=82112:55 G@e Me Academic classes
a
“+ 12 noon-1;:30 pe me Lunch ‘period ' 1:30=3; 30 Pe Meo Work newiod Male students (teacher trainees and Intermediate school students)
1. Cleaning
Zin Building |
So Painting
a Repairing fish nets
5< Copra production |
6- Working with cement to repair buildings, walks and other places in need-of repair
7. New construction of buildings and other necessary places 8. Fishing for school Women students 1. Classes in sewing and handicrafts 4:45-5:45 po Me Supper period
7:00-9:00 po Me Study period (when electricity is available):
Once a month three boys or six girls rotate on kitchen duty. A day was spent cooking and cleaning the kitchen,
The kitchen and dining rooms were in a separate building on the school grounds, Kerosene lamps were used for light, A wood stove was used for cooking and an oven for baking. These rooms were dark with cement flooring. Dishes were washed with cold water; soap was used when available.
There were no facilities for sterilization. Food was prepared in the kitchen
or outdoors. A well outside of the kitchen supplied water for washing rice and for dishwashing, rainwater from a cistern was used for drinking. Adequate storage space for perishables, such as fresh fish, was lacking,
Therefore, whenever, fish was caught in large numbers, they had to be eaten at once.
METHOD USED FOR STUDY
Food records were kept for three consecutive days on mimeographed sheets. They were for breakfast, lunch, supper and between meal feeding, Food was weighed at each meal on Chatillon gram scales and wmeaten food was reweighed, Between meal feedings were recorded and quantities estimated. For composite food products, the weights of the ingredients in the recipe, and the weight of the resulting food after cooking, were determined in order
to calculate from tables of food composition, the nutritive value of each food combination.
i ee ee ae
=128-
Other data collected were name, age, ‘séx, marital status, address, district, weight, height, medical record, and dental record.
RESULTS Nal FOOD INTAKE RECORDS An example of one of the student's intake record is given, Example : Name: E Age; 14 Sex: M ‘Meee status: S Address; Majuro Intermediate School District; Rongelap Weight; 92 pounds Height: 58 inches Medical record: Fhysical complaints: none Defects noted on general inspection Chronic tonsilitis
Eethyma buttocks
Chest X-ray Negative
Tuberdulin skin T Negative C Negative H Negative
Kahn - Negative
' Stools _ . “Negative
Summary or defect ' Dental fiona? sa | ak My '. Emergency treatment given - dental none Treatment required - none February 2, 1951 ‘Breakfast. :
Pancake! iri), ln) (beens 230 gms. Sugar cane. syrup: Mee AONE ele 20° ems :
Rinbyi boiled! i facawe Ask 1 200! ‘gins "
_—
" ..
Water
‘Lunch Rice, boiled Kuban fish, betied Water ri
Supper Pian, boiled Somron canned Water
Between meals
Drinking coconut, ni (fluid)
mere (meat) .
Waini (mature. coconut meat) | February 5, 1951 Breakfast Rice, boiled :
Salmon, canned
Water Lunch Doughnut Rice, boiled Water Supper
Rice, boiled Salmon, canned Water Between meals
Drinking coconut, ni (fluid) mere (meat)
Waini (mature coconut meat)
500
290 250
500
280 120
300
340 120
135
185 65
400
160 125
300
420 100
500
500 100
125
gmse
gms e gMso
EM 0
gMsSe ems «
@MSo
flse gmse
GMse
&MsSe gms 4
EMsSo
@mso emse
EMSo
emse emso
£MSo
Emse gMse
2MSo
£130.
February 6, 1951
Breakfast Pancake ait 140 Sugar cane syrup 20 ie Lunch Rice, boiled pk so 180 Salmon, canned 120 Water HMO | MOEN OO) Supper Rice, boiled 7 =r 260 Salmon, canned ~ ~ 140
Water 500
Between meals Waini (mature coconut meat) 135
TYPICAL MENUS
These menus show the type of meals which were
January 30, 1951
Breakfast
eMsSe
EMSe
EMSo
served in the school.
Boiled rice Canned red sockeye salmon
Black tea with sugar Lunch Doughnut Water
Supper
Boiled rice Canned red sockeye salmon
asl
February 2, 1951 Breakfast Boiled rice Pancake with syrup Black tea with sugar Lunch | Boiled rice Boiled fresh Kuban fish Black tea with sugar February 5, 1951 Breakfast Boiled rice Canned red sockeye salmon ' Black tea with sugar Lunch Doughnut. Me Canned sardines in cottonseed oil Canned évaporated milk with water Supper Boiled rice Canned red sockeye salmon . Canned milk with water INGREDIENTS USED IN SOME OF THE FOODS ON THE MENUS Beverages For each 300 grams of tea, 17.43 grams of sugar were added.
For each 300 grams of evaporated milk with water, there were 12. 64 grams of evaporated milk.
Doughnuts Yield: 165 doughnuts Ingredients Flour $3 pounds Eggs, powdered 2 pounds (whole ) Yeast Sel O25 Sugar 2 pounds Method ,
Ingredients were mixed together by hand and fried in deep fat until brown. They were eaten cold,
Volcom
Bread i Pa ca oo ce
Yield: 18 loaves
Ingredients Flour . -,, 35. pounds bai Sugar 8 pounds Yeast .., 4/4 pound Dried milk “1 pound
Methed
Regular bread making procedures were followed. Cook was trained in Navy bakery. Baked in wood fire oven.
Ingredients used in cooking Flour--wheat, hard, enriched bleached Sugar--fine pranulated white Yeast=-active dry yeast — Ae Dried milk--dried whole milk, 26% butter fat Dried eggs--spray dried whole eggs Sardines=--packed in cottonseed and/or | soy bean oil ‘Rice--converted, 100 pound sacks, Houston Texas brand Salmon--Red Sockeys Salmon, canned
RESULTS i “Table 12 gives the results of the dietary study of students of the Marshall Island Intermediate School and the Teacher Training School, Uliga, Marshall Islands.
The daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances for eighty=seven male and female students from the ages of thirteen to over 20 years of age were noted,
The subjects are divided into ‘different age groups, giving the number of subjects in each group, sex, range of each nutrient, number of subjects in each group, average, NRC allowances, number below allowances, and percent of subjests below allowances for calories, protein, fet, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, and ascorbic acids
We Calories
For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 2608 to 4571 calories, and the average per person was $858 caloricss. The average figure was 120% of the NRC allowances of 3200 calories, Three subjects or 27% were below allowances and eight or 73% were above these allowances.
For six female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 1841 to 3733 calories, and the average per person was 3281 calories. The average figure was 125% of the NRC allowances of 2609 calories. One subject or 17% was below allowance. -and five, subjects or 83% were above these allowances.
-133-
For forty-eight male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 1851 to 5655 calories, and the average per person was 3253 calories, The average figure was 86% of the NRC allowances of 3800 calories, Thirty-— ih nine or 81% were below allowances and nine or 19% were above allowances. ni
For eight female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was Hi from 2279 to 4161 calories, and the average per person was 30il calories. Al The average figure was 125% of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories. Two | subjects or 25% were below allowances and six subjects or 75% were above rea allowances, ot a Nie
“For thirteen male subjects, 20 years and over, the range was from 2290 to 3733 calories, and the average per person was 2972 calories. The average figure was 99% of the NRC allowances of 3000 calories. Six subjects or 46% were below allowances, and seven subjects or Shi were: above allowances,
For one female aba ee 20 years and over, 2236 calories were consumed, This figure was 111% of the NRC allowances of 2000 calories, This subject was above allowances,
For the total group of eighty-seven subjects, fifty-one subjects or 59% were below allowances, thirty-six subjects or 41% were above allowances.
BW Peatein ae a
For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 85 to 1/42 grams, and the average per person was 115 grams, The average was 135% of the NRC allowances of ce Brams ¢ Eleyen subjects or 100% were above allowances, 5 Sia ot
For : six female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 65. to 137 grams, and the average per person was 104 grams. The average was 130% of the NRC allowances of 80 grams, One subject or ‘17% was below allowances and five subjects or 83% were above these allowances,
For forty-eight male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 73 to 178 grams, and the average per person was 116 grams, The average was 116% of the NRC allowances of 100 grams, Fourteen subjects or 29% were below allowances and thirty~four or 71% were above the © allowances,
For eight female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range. was from 48 to 153 grams, and the average per person was 98 grams. Two subjects or 25% were below allowances and 6 subjects or 75% were above these allowances.
For thirteen male subjects, 20 years and over, the range was from 96 to 168 grams, and the average per person was 118 grams. The average was 168% of the NRC allowances of 70 grams, No one was below allowances and thirteen or 100% were above the allowances,
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=142-
For one female subject, 20 years and over, the daily intake: was 83 grams. This was 138% of the NRC allowances of 60 So. This subject was above the me ak
For the total group of eighty-seven subjects, seventeen eubiee | or 20% were below allowances and seventy subjects or 80% were above allowances. :
Be Fat :
For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 31 to 141 grams, and the average per person was 8&5 grams, The average was 95% of the NRC allowances of 89 grams, Six subjects or 55% were below allowances and five subjects or 45% were above the allowance.
For six female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 29 to 118 grams, and the average per person was 81 grams, The average was 112% of the NRC allowances of 72 grams, Two subjects or 33% were below allowances and four subjects or 67% were above allowances.
For forty-eight male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 21 to 200 grams, and the average per: person was 70 grams, The average was 67% of the NRC allowances of 105 grams, Forty-two subjects or 88% were below allowances and six subjects or 12% were above allowances,
For eight female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was_ | from 27 to 148 grams, and the average per person was 70 grams, The nice: average was 104% of the NRC allowances of 67 grams. Five subjects or 63% | were below allowances and three Se ges or te were above these allowances.
For thirteen male subjects, 20 years and over, the range was from 29 to 87 grams, and the average per person was 61 grams. The average was 73% of the NRC allowances of 83 grams. Eleven subjects or 85% were below . allowances and two or 15% were Oe: the allowances.
For one female subject, 20 years and over, the total grams of iG fat was 42 grams. This was 75% of the NRC allowances of 56 grams. This subject was below allowances, :
For the total group of eighty-seven subjects, sixty-seven subjects or 77% were below allowances and twenty subjects or 23% were above allowances.
i Calcium
For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was : from 492 to 1052 mgs., and the average per person was 784 mgs, The average was 56% of the NRC allowances of 1400, Eleven subjects or 109% were below . allowances,
For six female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from L405 to 1163 mgs., and the average per person was 725 mgs, The average was 56% of the NRC allowances of 1300 mgs. Six subjects or 100% were below allowances,
mas
. For forty-eight male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 436 to 1911 mgs., and the average per person was 825 mgs. The average was 59% of the NaC allowances of 1400 mgs, Forty-six subjects or 96% were below allowances and two or 4% were above allowances.
For eight female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 216 to 1432 mgs,, and the average per person was 675 mgs, The average was 67%. of the NRC allowances. of 1000 mgs, Seven subjects or 88S were below allowances and one subject or 12% was above the allowance,
For thirteen male subjects, 20 years and over, the range was from 607 to -1712 mgs., and the average per person was 926 mgs. The average was 93% of the NRC allowances. of. 1000 mgs, Nine subjects or 69% were be~ low allowances and four-.subjects or 31% were above allowances.
= For one female subject, 20 years and over, the total intake of calcium was 631 mgs. This was 63% of the NRC allowances of 1000 MES o This. icnscieiil was below allowances,
ae the Met cal group of eighty-seven subjects, eighty subjects or 92% were below allowances and seven subjects.or 8% were above allowances.
5. Phosphorus
.. For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 1079:to 2089 mgs., and the average per person was 1487 mgs. The average was 112% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs, Four subjects or
36% were below allowances and seven subjects or 64% were above allowances.
For. six female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 751 to 1637 mgs,, and the average per person was 1362 mgs, The average was 113% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs. One subject or 17% © was below the = sca alaiinblaba and five subjects or 83% were above allowances,
For forty~eight male subjects, “16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 996 to 2159 mgs., and the average per person was 1515 mgs. The | average was 115% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs; Twelve subjects or 25% were below allowances and thirty-six subjects or 75% were above allowances,
For eight female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 597 to 2064 mgs,, and the average per person was 1230 mgs, The average was 102% of the NRC piienances of 1200 MES » Four subjects or 50% were below allowances and four lie ines or 50% were above allowances,
For thirteen oe subjects, 20 years and over, the range was from 1018 to 2135 mgs., and the average per person was 1480 mgs. The average was 111% of the NRC allowances of. 1320 mgs, Three subjects or 23% were below allowances and ten sub jects or 77% were above allowances,
For one female subject, 20 years and over, the total mgs. of phosphorus was 1118 mgs, This was 65% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs. This subject was below the allowance, .
Bie
For the total group of eighty-seven subjects, twenty-five subjects or 29% were betew aaa and eancty eee subjects or 71% were above allowances.”
6. Tron
ier eleven: male subjects, 13 ean Agi years of: age, the range was ~ from 7 to 26 megs., and. the average! per person was 16 mgs, The average was.” 107% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, Five subjects or 45% were below. allowances and six SuRJCeuS) or 55% were above al once es
For six. porate aibyeete B ce 53 years tof age, tise! range was from 5 to 21 mgs. and the average per person was 13 mgs, The average was’ 87% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, Four subjects or 67%:were below. |
allowances and two subjects or Bi % were above aT oeane ss
For. eee ealeny mail, ‘iwieets, 15 to 20 years. of. aoe the. range was from 5 to 28 mgs., and the average per person was 13 mgs; The average — was 87% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, Twenty-nine subjects or 60% were below allowances and nineteen aubsecks or noe were above. allowances,
Ror eight female peraeeee, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 6 to 17 mgs., and the average per person was 11 mgs, The average was 73% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. Six subjects or 75% were below allowances and two subjects or 25% were above Se
For thirteen male eel ee 20 years and over, the: eee was from”
7 to 18 mgs., and the average per person was. 11mgs. The average was 92% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. . Seven subjects or 54% were -below 4 iiewanieds and six subjects or 46% were above ee
For one female subject, 20 years na over, che. iron ‘content was © 7 mgs, This was 58% of the NRC aiLowances) of 12 mgs, This subject was below the allowance.. na
. For the total group of eighty-seven students, fifty-two subjects or 60% were below allowances and thirty-five subjects or 407 were above allowances,
7o Vitamin A
For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 320 to 5844 I, U. and the average per person was 1666 1, U. The average was 33% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U. Ten subjects or 91% were below allowances and. one subject or 9% was above the allowance.
For six female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, PielPane outs from . 286 to 609 I. U. and the average per person was 479 I. U.: The average was 10% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U. Six subjects or 100% were below allowances, he
For forty-eight male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 233 to 7085 I. U. and the average per person was 1805 I, U. The average was 30% of the NRC allowances of 6000 I. U. Forty-five subjects
-145-
or 94% were below allowances and three subjects or 6% were above allowances.
For eight female subjects, 16 to 20 years, the range was from 306 to 10,187 I. U. and the average per person was 2431 1, U, The average was 49% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U. Seven subjects or 88% were below allowances and one subject or 12% was above the allowance,
For thirteen male subjects, 20 years and over, the range was from 482 to 5530 I. U, and the average per person was 2062 I. U. The
average was 41% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I, U. Eleven subjects or : a
85% were below allowances and two subjects or 15% were above allowances. |
For one female subjest, 20 years and over, the vitamin A content
was 1171 I. U,. This was 23% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U, This : aie
subject was below the allowance,
For the total group of eighty-seven students, eighty subjects or 92% were below allowances and seven subjects or 8% were above allowances.
8, Thiamine
For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 934 to 3049 megs.,and the average per person was 1686 mcgs. The average was 112% of the NRC allowances of 1500 mcgs. Five subjects or 45% were below allowances and six subjects or 55% were above allowances,
For six. female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 767 to 1822 mcgs. and the average per person was 1450 megs,. The average was 111% of the NRC allowances of 1300 mcgs, One subject or 17% was below the allowance and five subjects or 83% were above allowances.
For forty-eight male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 572 to 3188 mcgs., and the average per person was 1410 mcgs. The average was 83% of the NRC allowances of 1700 mcgs, Thirty-nine subjects or 81% were below allowances and nine subjects or 19% were above allowances.
For eight female subje cts, 16 to 20 years, the range was from 831 to 1600 megs,, and the average per person was 1162 megs, The average was 97% of the NRC allowances of 1200 megs. Five subjects or 63% were be- low allowances and three subjects or 37% were above allowances.
For thirteen male subjects, 20 years and over, the range was from 993 to 2112 megs., and the average per person was 1361 megs, The. - average was. 91% of the NRC allowances of 1500 megs, Nine subjects or 69% were below allowances and four subjects or 31% were above allowances.
For one female subject, 20 years and over, the thiamine content. . was. 826 megs, This was 83% of the NRC allowances of 1000 megs, This subject was below the allowance,
For the total group of eighty~seven students, sixty subjects or 69% were below allowances and twenty-seven subjects or 31% were above allowances,
~146-
9- Riboflavin
For eleven male snbifostee) 2B to oe yeas of ey ‘the range was from 605 to 2396 mcgs.,.and the average per person was 1109 megs. The average was 55%.of the NRC allowances iof 2000 megs. Ten subjects or ‘91% were below allowances and one SURE Ce or. 9% was above the allowance, Ve
For six fonts sub jects, 13) to 15 years of age, the range was from. 496 to 1255: megs., and the average per person was 966 megs. The average was 48% of the NRC allowances of 2000 Hee oes silage aca or 100% were» below kareena pita ;
For forty aeient male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 511 to 2107 mcgs., and the average per person was 1147, The _ average was 46% of the NRC allowances of 2500 HEE Forty-eight ges wi or 100% were below allowances. ih
“For eight female subjects , 16 to 20 years, the range was ‘from L6h, to 1495 mcgs., and the average per person was 912 mcgs, The average “wach or" 51% of the NRC allowances of 1800 megs, Eight subjects or 100% were below allowances.
For thirteen male subjects, 20 years and over, the range was from &L0 to: 1936 mcgs., and the average per person was 1179 mcgso' The average. was 65% of the NRC allowances of 1800 mcgs, Twelve subjects or ‘92% were | below allowances and one subject or 8% was above the allowances cam
For one female subject, 20 years na over, the riboflavin content was 814 megs, This was 54% of the NRC allowances oH 1500 MOBS This | subject was below: the allowance. hh
For the. total ene of eighty~seven stigienille: eighty-five ‘ub jeeta’” or 98% were below allowances and two subjects or 2% were above allowances.
10. © Niacin
For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 11 to 41 mgs., and the average per person was 27 mgs, The average was , 180% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. One subject or 9% was below the allowance and ten subjects or 91% were above allowances, ~
For six female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 15 to 31 mgs., and the average per person was 26 mgs. The average was 200% of the NRC allowances of 5 MES o Six subjects or 100% were above allowances, —
For Korky cesone male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range was from 13 to 37 mgs., and the average. per person was 26 mgs. The average was 153% of the NRC allowances of 17 mgs. One subject or 2% was below | allowances and forty-seven subjects or 98% were above allowances,
For eight female subjects, ploy to 20 years, the range was from 17 to 35 mgs., the average per person was 20'mgs. The average was 166% a of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs, Eight subjects or 100% were above allowances.
is
For thirteen male subjects, 20 years and over, the range was from 17 to 31 mgs., and the average per person was 24 mgs, The average was 160% of the NRC ences of, 5 MES ». One subject or 8% was below the allowance and twelve subjects or 92% were above allowances.
For ‘one female subject, 20 years and over, the niacin . content was *-15 mgs. - This‘ was. 150% of the NRC allowances of 10 mgs, This: subject was above the: allowance. wedging Bi syne
For the total group of eighty-seven students, three subjects or A were below allowances and eighty-four subjects or 96% were above allowances.
-11. Ascorbie Acid
For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, the range was from 0 to 120 mgs,, and the average per. person. was 27.mgs. The average was 30% of the NRC allowances of 90 mgs. Ten subjects or 91% were below aps rns ac and one subject or 9% was below the allowance.
For six female subjects, 13 to 15 years a age, the range was from 0 to 29 mgs., and the average per person was 14 mgs, The average was 17% of the NRC allowances of 80 mes, Six subjects or 100% were below.-. allowances,
-» For forty~eight male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, the range. was from O to 129 mgs., and the average per person was 23 mgs. The average was 23% of the NRC allowances of 23 mgs. Forty-three subjects or 90% were below allowances and five subjects or 10% were above allowances,
For eight female subjects, NS: bo. 20 years, the range was from 0 to 224 mgs., and the average per person was 40 mgs. The. average was 50% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs. Seven subjects or 88% were below allowances and one subject or 12% was above the allowance. For thirteen male subjects, “20 years and over, the range was from 0 to 44 mgs., and the average per. person was. 8 mgs.. The average was 11% of the NRC allowances of, 75 MES « Thirteen. subjects or, 100% were below allowances.
. For one female subject, 20 years and, over, Che. total niacin con tent was 9 mgs. This was 13% of the NRC allowances of 70 mgs. This subject was below the allowance. ne bball RSA hl eae
For the total group of men es eighty subjects or 92% were below allowances and seyen subjects or 8%.were above allowances,
~148- rn ts
“Three” ‘day’ ai es records of ee students at the
Marshall Island Intermediate School and Téacher ' Training School at
Uliga, Marshall Islands, from the ages of 13 to 20 years and over, were studied for. ‘daily. quantities. of calories, protein, fat, calciun, phosphorus, iron vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ‘ascorbic acid. These figures were then compared with National Research Council Allowances.
“Taking the total ‘group of éighty-seven students, the following *-pesults were obtained when daily intakes were compared with NRC allowances.
1. Calories: Fifty-one subjects or 59% were below Sn thirty-six subjects or 41% were above allowances.
‘2. Protein: ~ Seventeen subjects or 20% were below allowances, seventy subjects or’ 80% were above allowances » 4
3. Fat: Sixty~seven subjects or 77% were below allowances, ‘ twenty subjects or 23% were above allowances.
ie Calcium: Righty subjects or 92% were below arieettedut seven subjects or 8% were above allowances.
5. _Phosphorus: Twenty-five subjects or 29% were below allowances, sixty-two subjects: or 71% were above allowances.
6. Iron: Fifty-two subjects or 60% were below allovances, thirty-five subjects or 40% were above allowances.
‘a. | “Vitamin A: Eighty subjects or 92% were > below allowances, seven subjects or 8% were above aa coenc eo.
8. Thiamine: Sixty subjects or 69% were ne eae twenty-seven subjects or 31% were above heresGu a a
vey ‘Riboflavin: Eighty-five Ch see or 98% were below allowances, two subjects or 2% were above’ allowances. ° ©
10. Niacin: Three subjects or 4% were Petow mde: eighty- four’ subjects or 964 were above allowances.
11. Ascorbic acid: Eighty subjects or 92% were below sinidoasiedels seven subjects or 8% were above allowances.
ti Ninety-six percent of the subjects met the NRC allowances for niacin; 80% of the subjects met the NRC allowances for protein; and 71% of the subjects met the NRC allowances for phosphorus,
Ninety-eight percent of the subjects were below allowances for riboflavin, Ninety-two percent of the subjects were below allowances for calcium, vitamin A, and ascorbic acid. Seventy-seven percent of the subjects failed to meet NRC allowances for fat; 69% of the subjects failed to meet NRC allowances for thiamine; 60% of the subjects failed to meet NRC allowances for iron; and 59% of the subjects failed to meet NRC allowances for calories.
-149-
SUMMARY OF DAILY QUANTITIES OF VARIOUS NUTRIENTS PER PERSON IN THE THREE MARSHALLESE SCHOOLS AND COMPARISON WITH NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL ALLOWANCES,
PURPOSE
To compare the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances between three Marshallese Schools, The Marshall Island Intermediate School and Teacher Training School (an example of a school for Marshallese students administered and financed by the U. S. Navy); the other two, the Marshall Christian Training School and the Mission School, were examples of schools for Marshallese students administered and financed by Marshallese.
PROCEDURE AND METHODS USED
Given under section for each individual school.
RESULTS
Table 13 summarizes the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and compares them with National Research Council Allowances for female subjects from three schools in the Marshall Islands: The Marshall Island Intermediate School and the Teacher Training School at Uliga, the Marshall Christian Training School at Ronrod, and the Mission School at: Majuro Village, Majuro Island,
| There were 163 male and female subjects, of which 80 were female students,
There were four subjects, ages 10 to 12 years from the Marshall Christian Training School,
Thirty subjects, ages 13 to 15 years; of these, fourteen were from the Marshall Christian Training School, ten subjects from the Mission School, and six subjects from the Marshall Island Intermediate School.
There were 45 subjects ages 16 to 20 years: 34 subjects from the Marshall Christian Training School; three subjects from the Mission School; and eight subjects from the Marshall Island Intermediate School, There was one subject over 20 years of age from the Marshall Island Inter- mediate School.
The average intakes, NRC allowances, percent of allowances, percent of subjects below allowances, for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid are a al ,
Le: FEMALES a. JO to 12 years of age
1. For four female subjects, 10 to 12 years of age from the Marshall Christian Training School, the daily quantities of various nutrients
-150—
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per person and comparison with NRC ee are summarized heres -
1. Calories: average intake was 2300 calories, which was 92% of the NRC allowances of 2500 calories. 75% of the subjects were below allowances.
2. Protein: average intake was 66 gms., which was 94% of the NRC allowances of 70 gms. 75% of the subjects were below allowances,
3. Fat: average intake was 42 gms., which was 61% of the NRC allowances of 69 gms. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
4. Calcium: average intake was 440 gms., which was 37% of the NRC allowances of (1200 mgs. 100%,.of the subjects were below allowances. ‘ ‘
5o Phosphorus: average intake was 1132 mgs., which was eae 94% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs, nie of the subjects were below ne allowances, Firs iat
6. Iron: average intake was 9 mgs., which was 75% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs, 100% of the subjects were below allowances,
7. Vitamin A: average intake was 1796 I. U., which was 40% of the NRC allowances of 4500 I. U. 100% of the subjects were below allowances. he
8, Thiamine: average intake was 1056 mcgs., which was 884 of the NRC allowances of 1200 mcgs. 15% of the subjects were below allowances,
9. Riboflavin: average intake was 672 megs., which was 37%. of the NRC allowances of 1800 megs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances,
10. Niacin: average intake was 13 mgs,, which was 108% of the, NRC allowances of 12 mgs. 25% of the subjects were below allowances.
11. Ascorbic acid: average intake was 16 mgs., which was ie 21% of the NRC allowances of 75 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
100% of the subjects were below allowances for fat, calcium, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid; 75% of the subjects were DeLlow allowances for calories, protein, phosphorus, and thiamine, 25% of | ; the subjects were below allowances for niacin and 75% were above allowances. ©
be 13 to 15 years of age
aly For fourteen female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age from ° the Marshall Christian Training School, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with NRC allowances are summarized here:
1, Calories: ‘average intake was 2070 calories which was 80% of the NRC allowances of 2600 calories. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
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2. Protein: average intake was 58 gms., which was 72% of the NRC allowances of 80 gms. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
3, Fat: average intake was 39 gms., which was 54% of the NRC allowances of 72 gms. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
4,: Calcium: average Breaks was 496 mgs., which was 38% of the NRC allcwances of 1300 gS o 100% of the subjects were below allowances,
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 1054 mgs., which was 88% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs. 93% of the subjects were below allowances, Wis
6, Iron: average intake was 9 mgs., which was 60% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, 93% of the subjects were below allowances.
7%, Vitamin A: average intake was 2845 I, U., which was 57% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I, U. 93% of the subjects were below allowances.
8, Thiamine: average intake was 690 mcgs., which was 53% of the NRC allowances of 1300 megs, 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
S$, Riboflavins average intake was 498 megs., which was 25% of the NRC allowances of 2000 mcgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances, iO, Niacin: average intake was 10 mgs., which was 77% of the NRC allowances of 13 mgs. 71% of the jennie were below allowances.
ll, Ascorbic adits average intake was 17 mgs,, which was 21% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
100% of the subjects were below allowances for Saar 5s protein, fat, calcium, thiamine, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid; 93% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus, iron and vitamin A3 71%, of the sub— jects were below allowances for niacin,
2, For ten female subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, from the Mission School, the daily quantities of various nutrients' per person and comparison with NRC allowances are summarized here:
1, Calories: average intake was 1217’ calories which was 47% of the NRC allowances of 2600 calories, 100% of the subjects were below allowances. ae
2. Protein: average intake was 29 gms., which was 36% of the NRC allowances of 80 gms, 1007 of the subjects were below allowances.
3. Fat: average intake was 8 gms., which was 11% of the NRC allowances of 72 gms, 100% of the subjects were below allowances «
4, Calcium: average intake was 209 mgs., which was 16% of the NRC allowances of 1300 mgs, 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 48) mgs., which was 40% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances,
~154—
-6, ‘Iron: average intake was 6 mgs:, which was 40% of the NRC al Powanees: of 15 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances,
-° 9%, Vitamin A: average intake:was 40 I. U., which was 0.8% oy of the NRC: allowances of 5000 I. U. 100% of the’ subjects were below allowances.
--°8, Thiamine: averagé intake was 633 megs., which was 49% of the .NRE allowances of’ 1300 megs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.’ ~
Qa Riboflavin: ‘average intake was 450 mcgs., which was 22% of the NRG aalleaeness of 20CO0 megs. 100% of the subjects were belay, allowances.
10. Niacin: average intake was 11 mgs., which was 85% of the NRC allewanees. of: 13 mgs, 100%.of the subjects were below allowances,
a ‘11... Ascorbic acid: average intake was 15 MES. which was 19% L af: the: NRC allowances of 80 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances. ’
100% of the subjects were below allowances for all the nutrients, | namely, . dallorded protein, fat, ¢alcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, 1 niacin and ascorbic aoc erie agg 36 For six finales subgeeea,| 13: to ea years lois age, from the Marshal Island Intermediate School, the daily quantities of various nutrients per abil and comparison with ae acct pemnaene are summarized pe
nlks Galleries: average areake was 3281 tees, which was 125% of the NRC allowances of -_ ae ies aah the pe were below allowances,
Gy) Qe Proteins average intake was 10) BMS sy” which was 130% of ae
the NRC: ooo ees of 80 ssl he of: tae Neue Sue were: below ede ala 3, Fat: Ouerage tiribalke was 82 ems oy” hen was’ 1124 of the
NRC allowances of 72 gms. 33% of the subdects were below allowances
isn lecan sOadeaians an epane ites was 705 MES» , which was 56% of - the NRC allowances of 1300 mgs, 100% of the subjects were below allowances, °
. . ~ 5, Phosphorus: average intake was 1362 mgs., which was 113% of the NRC. allowances’ of 1200 mgs, 17% of the subjects were below pions
6. Iron: average intake was 13 mgs., which was 87% of the NRC eek (ies of 15:mgs. 67% of ee subjects were below allowances.
“ae Vitamin Az average intake was 479 i U,., which was 10% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I, U. 100% of the subjects were’ below
8. Thiamine: average:intake was 1450 mcgs., which was eee of the NRC ‘allowances of 1300 megs. 17% of the subjects were below
allowances 4
e FkY
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9. Riboflavin: average intake was 966 mcgs., which was 48% of the NRC allowances of 2000 megs, 100% of the subjects were below allowances 5
10, Niacin: average intake was 26 mgs., which was 200% of the NRC allowances of 13 mgs, None of the subjects were below allowances,
11, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 14 mgs., which was 17% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs, 100% of the subjects were below allowances, ill
100% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium, vitamin A,
riboflavin, and ascorbic acid; and 67% of the subjects were below allowances
for iron. 33% of the subjects were below allowances for fat, For calories, protein, phosphorus, and thiamine only 17% of the subjects were below in allowances and 83% of the subjects were above allowances. All subjects or Mii 100% were above allowances for niacin, |
¢; 16 to 20 years of age
1. For thirty-four female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, from ni the Marshall Christian Training School, the daily quantities of various ut nutrients per person and comparison with NRC allowances are summarized here: Wl
1. Calories: average intake was 2178 calories, which was 91% of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories. 73% of the subjects were below ui allowances. ; |
2e Protein: average intake was 59 gms-, which was 79% of tha i NRC allowances of 75 gms. 91% of the subjects were below allowances.
3, Fat: average intake was 42 gms., which was 63% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms- 85% of the subjects were below allowances,
4, Calcium: average intake was 445 mgse, which was LL% of i the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances, iN
5, Phosphorus: average intake was 1102 mgs., which was 92% {i of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs; 82% of the subjects were below allowances. Hi)
6, Iron: average intake was 9 mgs., which was 60% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, 100% of the subjects were below allowances,
7, Vitamin A: average intake was 2885 I. U., which was 58% | of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U. 94% of the subjects were below allowances, ball
8. Calcium: average intake was 756 mgs., which was 63% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs. 94% of the subjects were below allowances.
9. Phosphorus: average intake was 552 mgs., which was 31% of the NRC allowances of 1800 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
10. Niacin: average intake was 12 mgs., which was 100% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs, 56% of the subjects were below allowances.
mao
“11. Ascorbic acid: average intake was .22\.mges., which was 27% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
- 100% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium, iron, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid; 94% of the subjects were below allowances for. vitamin A and thiamine; 91% of the subjects were below allowances for pro— tein; 85% of the pubseets were below allowances for fat; 82% of the subjects were below-allowances for phosphorus; 73% of the subjects were below allowances for calories; and 56% of the subjects were below allowances for niacin,
“29 For three female subjects, 16 to 20 years of eo ‘from the Mission School, the daily quantities of various nutrients per he. and comparison : with the NRC allowances are summarized here:
1. Calories: average intake was 1277 calories, whieh was 53% of the NRC allowances of 2400 calories, ~ 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
2. Protein: average intake was 31 gms., which was 41% of the NRC allowances of °75 gms, (100% of the subjects were below allowances.
3, Fat: ‘average intake was.10-gms., which was 15% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms. : 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
4. Calcium: average intake was 157 mgs., which was 16% of the NRC allowances of 1000 MBS 2 100% oe vee os were below allowances.
5. Phosphorus: Broree intake was 484 mgs. , whieh was LOZ | of the NRC allowances of 1200 mass On of the subjects were below allowances,
6. Iron: average Batake | was 7 mgs.e, which was fer of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs, 100% ou the ey oueete were below allowances,
7- Vitamin A: average intake was ale I, Us, which was 1% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I; U,. 100% of the subjects were below allowances,
8, Thiamine: average intake was 840 mcgs., which was 70% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mcgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
9, Riboflavin: average intake was 530 mcgs., which was 24% of the NRC allowances of 1800 mcgs, 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
10, Niacin: average intake was 10 mgs., which was 83% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below aa
11, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 12 mgs., wen was 15% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs, 100% of the subjects were below allowances,
100% of the subjects were below allowances yor all the nutrients, namely, calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, aPOHs vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid,
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3. For eight female subjects, 16 to 20 years of age from the Marshall Island Intermediate School, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person with the NRC allowances are summarized here:
1. Calories; average intake was 3011 calories, which was 125% of the NRC altowance's of 2400 calories. 25% of the subjects were below allowances.
2. Protein; average intake was 98 gms,, which was 131% of the NRC allowances of 75 gms. 25% of the subjects were. below allowances,
3. Fat: average intake was 70 gms., which was 104% of the NRC allowances of 67 gms. 63% of the subjects were below allowances.
4, Calcium: average intake was 675 mgs., which was 67% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. 88% of the subjects were below allowances.
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 1230 mgs., which was 102% of the NRC allowances of 1200 mgs. 50% of the subjects were below allowances.
6, Iron: average intake was 11 mgs., which was 73% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. 75% of the subjects were below allowances.
7. Vitamin A; average intake was 2431 I,.U., which was 49% of the NRC allowances of 5000°I, U. 88% of the subjects were below allowances,
8, Thiamine: averaze intake was 1162 MCESo, which. was 97% of the NRC allowances of 1200 MOBS o 63% of the subjects were below allowances. aed
9. Riboflavin: average intake was 912 megs., which was 51% of the NRC allowanses of are Megs 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
10. Niacin; average intake was 20 mgs-, which was 166% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgs. None of ‘the subjects were below allowances.
ll. Ascorbic acid: average. intake was 40 mgs,, which was 50% of the NRC allowances of 80 mgs. 88% of the subjects were below allowances.
100% of the subjests were below allowances for riboflavin; 38% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium, vitamin A, and ascorbic acids 75% of the subjects were below allowances for irons 63% of the sub-= jects were below allowanses for fat and thiamine; and 50% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus, 25% of the subjects were below allowances for calories and protein and 75% of the subjects were above allowances. All of the subjects or 100% were above allowances for niacin.
d. 20 years of age and over
1, For one female subject over 20 years of age, from the Marshall Island Intermediate School, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized here:
15654"
ne ‘ dalories:. average intake was "2236 calories, which ¥ was 111%. of the NRC allowances of 2000 calories. The ‘subject was above, allowance ss .
_ 8. Protein; average intake was 83 gms., which was 138% of the NRC allowances of 60 gmse This subject was above allowancese he
5. Fat; average intake was 42 gms;, which was 75% of ene ae" allowances of 56 gms-. This subject was below allowances. |
4; Calcium: average intake was 631 mgse, which was 63% of the © NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. This subject was below allowances. _
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 1118 mgs», which was 85% of _ the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs. This subject was below allowances,
ee Glan (Reon “average intake was 7 MeSe, which was 58% of the NRC allowances of 12 mgso This subject was Potow, allowances,
7. Vitamin a average Untate wes LIV i. Us. onion - was 23% of the NRC allowanses of, 5000 I. Ue This subject was below allowancas,
8. Thiamine: ‘everage intake was 826 megse, which was 83% of the NRC allowances of 1000 MCS o This. Fopies was below allowances.
"9. Riboflavin; average intake was 814 epee, ante was, “54% af the NRC allowances of 1500 megs. This subject was below allowances.
10. “Widoiti: “average intake was ‘15 mgsoy. which 1 vas. 150% of the. NRC allowances of 10 mgs. This subject was above allowances.
ll, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 9 mgs., which was 13% of the NRC allowante's of ‘70 MEBe This subject: was below allowance se. .
This subject was below allowances for fat, calciun, phosphorus, } iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid;. and above allowances for calorios: protein, and ni acing
Table 14 summarized the quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison ‘with National Research Council Allowances for male. subjects. from three schools in the Marshall Islands: the Marshall Island Intermediate School and the Teacher Training School, at Uliga; the Marshall Christian Training School at Ronron; and the Mission, School at -Majuro Village, Majuro Island.
There were one hundred and sixty-three male and female subjectso ska There were eighty-three male subjects.
There were twelve subjects, ages 13 to 15 years; one subject from the Mission School, and eleven subjects from the Marshall Island Intermediate School, ig
There was a total of fifty-oight subjects, ages 16 to. 20 years. Of these, ten subjects were from the Mission School; forty-eight subjects. from the Marshall Island Intermediate School.
~159~
For the thirteen students who were over 20 years of age, there were thirteen subjects from the Marshall Island Intermediate School.
The averege intakes, NRC allowances, percent of allowances, per-= cent of subjects below allowances, for ealories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid are given.
II. MALES
&. 13 to 15 years of ago
le. For one male subject, 13 to 15 years of age, from the Mission School, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized here:
1. Calories: average intake was 1098 calories, which was 34% of the NRC allowances of 3200 caloriese This subject was below allowances.
2e Protein; average intake was 23 gms., which was 27% of the NRC allowances of 85 gms. This subject was below allowances.
3. Fat: average intake was 7 gmse, which was 8% of the NRC allowances of 89 gms. This subject was below allowances,
4, Calcium; average intake was 228 mgs., which was 16% of the NRC allowances of 1400 mgs. This subject was below se a oa
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 493 mgs., which was 37% of the NRC allowances of 1320: mMgse This subject was below allowances.
6. Iron; average intake was 7 mgse, which was 47% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgse This subject was below allowances.
7e Vitamin A; average intake was 50 I. U., which was 1% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. Ue. This subject was below allowances.
8, Thiamine: average intake was 565 mcgs., which was 38% of the NRC allowances of 1500 megs. This subject was below allowances..
9, Riboflavin: average intake was 449 megs., which was 22% of the NRC allowances of 2000 mcgse This subject was below allowances.
10. Niacin: average intake was 11 mgse, which was 173% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. This subject was below allowances.
2 Ascorbic acid: average intake was 29 mgs., which was 32% of the NRC allowances of 90 mgs. This subject was below allowances.
This subject was below allowances for all of the nutrients, namely, calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid.
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2. For eleven male subjects, 13 to 15 years of age, from the Marshall Island Intermediate School, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison ich the NRC allowances are summarized here;
1. Calories; average intake was 3858 calories, which was 120% of the NRC allowances of 3200 calories. 27% of the subjects were below allowances.
2. Proteins average intake was 115 gms., which was 135% of the NRC allowances of 85% gms. None were below allowances. oh
3- Fat: average intake was 85 gms., which was 95% of the RC allowances of 89 gms, 55% were below allowances.
4, Calcium: average intake was 784 mgs», which was 56% of © the NRC allowances of 1400 mgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
5, Phosphorus; average intake was 1487 mgs., which was 112% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs. 36% of the subjects were below allowances.
6. Iron; ave rage intake was 16 mgse, which was 107% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. 45% of the subjests were below allowances, °
7. Vitamin A: average intake was 1666 I. U., which was 33% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. Ue. 91% of the subjects were: below allowance se
8. Thiamine: average intake was 1685 megs., which was 112% of the NRC allowances of 1500 megs. 45% of the subjects were below allowances.
9, Riboflavin; average intake was 1109 megs., which was 55% of the NRC allowances of 2000 megs. 91% of the subjects were below allowances.
10. Niacin: average intake was 27 mgs., which was 180% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs. 9% of the subjects were below allowances.
ll. Ascorbic acid: average intake was 27 mgs., which was 30% of the NRC allowances of 90 mgs. 91% of the subjects were below al lowanoaee
100% of the subjects were below allowances een calsiums 91% of the subjects were below allowanses for vitamin A, ribeflavin, and ascorbic acid; and 56% of the subjects were below i icgancdas for fat. 36% of the subjects were bolow allowanees for phosphorus and 64% of the subjects wore above allowances, 45% of the subjects were below allowances fer iron and thiamine, while 55% of the subjects were above allowanses, 27% of the subjects were below allowances for calories and 73% of the subjects were above allowances. All subjects or 100% were above allowances for protein. 9% of the subjects were belcw allowances for niacin and 91% of the subjects were above allowances.
be 16 to 20 years of age l. For ten male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, from the Mission
School, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized here:
~L63%
1, Calories: average intake was 1332 calories, which was 35% of the NRC allowances of 3800 calories, 100% of the subjects were below © allowances, ei
2. Protein: average intake was 28 gms., which was 28% of the - NRC allowances of 100 gmse 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
3: Feat: average intake was 19 gms, which was 18% of the NRC ‘allowances of 105 gms. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
4, Calcium: average intake was 148 gms., which was 11% of. the NRC allowances of 1400 mgs, 100% of the subjeots were below allowances,
5, Phosphorus: average intake was 453 mgs., which was 34% of hi the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs.» 100% of the subjects were below allowances. ‘|
6, Iron; average intake was 7 mgs, which was 47% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgs» 100% of the subjects were below allowances,
7. Vitamin As average intake was 29 I. U., which was 0.5% ‘i of the NRC allowances ot 6000 I. U. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
8. Tuianine: average intake was 650 mcgs., which was 38% of the NRC allowances of 1700 megs. 100% ‘of the subjects were below allowances.
9. Riboflavin: average intake was 432 mcgs., which was 17% of the NRC allowances of 2500 mcgs. 100% of the subjects were below allowance se oh |
| |
10, Niacin: average intake was 10 mgs., which was 59% of the NRC Beenreands of 17 mgss “100% of the subjects were below allowances.
11, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 12 mgs., which was 12% i of the NRC allowances of 100 mgs. 100% of the subjeots were below allowances. all
2. For forty-eight male subjects, 16 to 20 years of age, from the”™ | Marshall Island Intermediate School, the daily quantities of various nutrients My per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are: summarized here;
1, Calories: average intake was 3253 calories, which was 86% of the NRC allowances of sete calories. 81% of the subjects were below HH allowances. : Hi
2. Protein;:: average intake was 116 gms., which was 116% of eal the NRC allowances of 100 gms» 29% of the subjects were below allowances. Hil
3. Fat; average intake was 70 gms., which was 67% of the nt ‘NRC allowances of 105 gms. 42% of the subjects were below allowances.
4. Calcium; average intake was 825 mgs., which was 59% of the f) NRC. allowances of 1400 mgs. 96% of the subjects were below allowances. i
5< Phosphorus; average intake was 1515 MES, which was 115% i of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs. 25% of: the subjects were below allowances, Ml
6. Iron; average intake was 13 mgs., which was 87% of the WRC allowances of 15 mgs. 60% of the subjects were below allowances.
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7. Vitamin A; average intake was 1805 I. U., which was 30% of the NRC allowances of 6000 I. Ue. 94% of the subjects were below allowance6s
8. Thiamine; average intake was 1410 mcgs., which was 83% of the NRC allowances of 1700 megs. 81% of the subjects were below allowances.
9, Riboflavin: average intake was 1147 mcgs., which was 46% : of the NRC allowances of 2500 megs. 100% of the subjects were below allowances.
10, Niacin: average intake was 26 mgse, which was 153% of the NRC allowances of 17 mgs.. 2% of the subjects were below allowances.
ll, Ascorbic acid: average intake was 23 mgs., which was 23% of the NRC allowances of 100 mgs, 90% of the subjects were below allowances.
100% of the subjects were below allowances for riboflavin; 96% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium; 94% of the subjects were below allowances for vitamin A; 90% of the subjects were below allowances for ascorbic acid; 81% of the subjects were below allowances for calories -and thiamine; and 60% of the subjects were below allowances for iron, 42% of the subjects were below allowances for fat and 58% were above allowances. 29% of the subjects were below allowances for protein and 71% were above. 25% of the subjects were below allowances and 75% of the subjects were above allowances for phosphorus. 2% of the subjects were below allowances and 98% of the subjects were above allowances for niacin.
Ge 20 years of age and over
1. For thirteen male subjects, 20 years and over, from the Marshall Island Intexmediate School, the daily quantities of various nutrients per person and comparison with the NRC allowances are summarized heres:
1. Calories; average intake was 2972 calories, which was 99% of the NRC allowances of 3000 calories. 46% of the subjects were below allowance se
2. Protein:. average intake was 118 gmse, which was 168% of the NRC allowances of 70 gms. None of the subjects were below allowances,
So Fats ‘average intake was 61 pgmse, which was 73% of the NRC allowances of 83 gms. 85% of the subjects were below allowances.
4, Calcium; average intake was 926 mgs., which was 93% of the NRC allowances of 1000 mgs. 69% of the subjects were below allowancese
5. Phosphorus: average intake was 1480 mgs., which was 111% of the NRC allowances of 1320 mgs. 23% of the subjects were below allowances.
6. Iron; average intake was 11 mgs., which was 92% of the WRC allowances of 12 mgs. 54% of the subjects were below allowances.
7. Vitamin A: average intake was 2062 I. U., which was 41% of the NRC allowances of 5000 I. U. 85% of the subjects were below allowances.
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8. Thiemine: average intake was 1361 megs., which was 91% of the NRC allowances of 1500 megs; 69% of the subjewts were below allowances.
9, Riboflavin; average intake was 1179 mcgse, which was 65% of the NRC allowances of 1800 mcgs. 92% of the subjects were below allowances.
10. Niacin: average intake was 24 mgs., which was 160% of the NRC allowances of 15 mgse 8% of the subjects were below allowancese
; +. lil. ; Ascorbie acid: average intake was 8 mgs.,, which was 11% of sis NRC aeons of 75 mgs. 100% of the saan were below allowances.
100% of the aha anre were to ete me eh for AesOrbi6 acids 92% of the subjects were below allowances for riboflavin; 85% of the subjects were below allowances for both fat and vitamin A; 69% of the subjects were
_ below-allowances for calcium and thiamine; and 54% of the subjects were below allowances for iron, 46% of the subjects were below allowances for calories and 54% were above allowances, 23% of the subjects were below allowances and 77% were above allowances for phosphorus. 8% of the subjects were below allowances and 92% of the subjests were above allowances for niacin. 100%
of the subjects were above allowances for protein.
ca
SUMMARY
The dietary records of 163 subjects who were students of three schools in the Marshall Islands, namely, the Marshall Island Intermediate School and the Teacher Training School, at Uliga; the Marshall Christian School at Rofrofs; and the Mission School at Majuro Village, Majuro, were studied for daily consumption of calories, protein, fat, oalcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid, These figures were then compared with National Research Council Allowances.
There were eighty female i icaites ‘ sh ) Wik) a. Ages 10 to 12 years - Moual, four subjects | 1. Marshall Christian Trainfng School arr subjects be Ages is to 15 aia - Total, “thirty subjects 1, Warshal] Gheiatien Training eaveak - fourteen subjects WK 2. Mission School = fon ee en 3. Marshall Intermediate School - six subjects cs Ages 16 to 20 years = Total - forty-five subjects | 1. Marshall Christien Training School - thirty-four subjects.
2. Mission School - three subjects
3. Marshall Island Intermediate School -eight subjects il
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de Ages 20 years and over = Total, one subject | 1. Mer siteay Tsland Pat ontgenldeel’s deanna one subjects - eee were cighty-three male ar cae : ae Ages 16 to ie ada - Total, “twelve ve subjects o Mission’ Sahoo! * -' one: ‘eingdet Zo gee! Island Pieris ae School = GLE ce puedes be Ages 16 to 20 years - - Total, ‘fibtyroignt subjects . 1. Mission School - ten: subjects , toed me ah 20 eee) oe Intermediate penooms = . forty-oight subjects 7 oe Ages 20 ease and ‘over = “Total, thirteen subjects | yee oo ls Marshal tsTand Intermediate ‘School ~ thirteen subjects.
ms
Taking the total group of 163 eubjeces and grouping them as above, the following results were obtained when daily intakes were compared with National Research Council allowances, © *
Tq PEusns Me pissieeel Oye : Pte siseae
agi LOto 12 years ‘of oe
whe bat
de Marshall Christian Training Shoo
AL of the. daugudtel or 100% were. be lott pienaness for Paty! catennid, jron, vitamin A, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid. 75% of the subjests were below allowances for calories, protein, phosphorus, and thiaminé, 25% of the subjects were below ee on aecs te
Saya 1 A De ae ue) as Jeans: of age
au Wlarshall Christian poe School 100% of the subjects were ieelon alleneucee eh g calonee: protein, fat, calcium, thiamine, riboflavin; and ascorbic acid, 93% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus, iron, and ae As and 71% of the subjects were below allowances for. niacine a es 2. Mission School 100% of the subjects were’ below allowances for all of the nutrients, namely, calories, protein, fat, calcium, PRoephorwe iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin; and ascorbic acids ©
3. Marshall: Island Intermediate School °
100% of the’ subjects were ‘below allowances for calciun, vitemin A, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid; and 67% of the subjects were below
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allowences for iron. 33% of the subjects were below allowances and 67% were above allowances for fat. For calories, protein, phosphorus, and thiamine only 17% of the subjects were below allowances and 83% of the subjects were above allowances, All subjects or 100% were above allowances for niacin. a
“Co 16 to 20 years of age “1, Marshall Christian Training School
100% of the subjects were below allowances for calciun, iron, riboflavin, and ascorbic acids; 94% of the subjects were below allowances for vitamin A and thiamine; 91% of the subjects were below allowances for protein; 85% of the subjects were:'below allowances for fat; 82% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus; 73% of the subjects were below allowances for calories; 56% of the subjects were below allowances for niacino
2-2 Mission School
100% of the subjects were below allowances for all the nutrients, namely, calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and BEEP Shae ACido .
Se Marshall. ania Teradata, School
hi 100% of the at nected were below sleiceaunieee for riboflavin; 88% - pe: the subjects were below allowances for calcium, vitamin A, and ascorbic acid; 75% of the subjects were below.allowances for iron;, 63% of the subjects were below allowances for fat and thiamine; and 50% of the subjects were
below allowances for phosphorus. For calories and protein, 25% of the sub= jects were below allowances and 75% of the subjects were above allowanves.
All of the subjects, or 100% were above allowances for niacin.
d. 20 years of age and over 1. Marshall Island Intermediate School The subject was below. allowances for fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid; and above allowances for calories, protein and niacine II, MALES &@. 13 to 15 years of age 1. Mission School The subject was below allowances for all of the nutrients, namely, calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, ribo- flavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid.
2e Marshall Island Intermediate School
100% of the subjects were below allowances for-calcium;
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91% of the subjects were below allowances for vitamin A, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid; and 55% of the subjects were below’ aah awdueste for fat. 16% of the subjests weve below allowances for phosphorus and 64% of the sub- jects were above allowances. 45% of the subjects were below allowances for iron and thiamine, while 55% of the subjects were above allowances, 27% of the subjects were below allowances for calories and 73% were above allowances. All subjects or 100% were above allowances for protein, 9% were below allowances for niacin and 91% were above allowanves.
Ds 16 to 20 years of age pe Mission School
100% of the: miBseets were below allowances for all the Meenas: namely, calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, ‘Vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid,
@. Marshall Island Intermediate School
100% of the subjects were below allowances for riboflavin; 96% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium; 94% of the subjects -were below allowanses for vitamin. A; 90% of the. subjects we're below allowances for ascorbic acid; 81% of the subjects were below allowances for calories and thiamine; and 60% of the subjects were below allowances for iron. 42% of the subjects were: below allowanses for fat..and 58% were above allowances. 29% of the subjects were below allowances for protein and 71% wers above allowanves. 25% of the subjects were below and 75% above allowances for phosphorus, 2% of the subjects were ‘below allowances - and 98% we re above allowances for niacins
Ce 20 years of age and over 9 1. Marshall Island Tne mod sete. Soibe
100% of the subjects were below allowances for ascorbic acid; 92% of the subjects were below allowances for riboflavin; 85% of the subjects were below allowances for both fat and vitamin A; 69% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium and thiamine; and 54% of the subjects were below allowances for iron» 46% of the’ subjects were below allowances for calories and 54% were above’ allowances, 23% of the subjects were below allowances and 77% were above allowances for phosphorus. ° 8% of the subjects were below and 92% were above allowances for niacin, 100% of the subjects were above allowances for protein.
In comparing the three schools, the Marshall Island Intermediate School students had the best dietary; the Marshall Christian Training School, second; and the Misssion School, third. However, all of the NRC allowances were not met by the meals served in any of the schools; so there is much to be done for the improvement of the nutrient content of the diets.
ROR
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In all the sshools, the diets can be improved by including some of the protective foods, such as the green leafy vegetables and milk, The other foods which are good sources of the various nutrients as noted in the previous section should be included for a well balanved diet. Marshallese diets in most instances are low in the protective foods.
The students of the Navy operated school, Marshall Island Inter- mediate School and the Teacher Training School had the best diet. The dist was known to be insufficient in the nutrients and an effort had been made to include beans, dried eggs, meat, milk, fruits and vegetables in the diet. In the other schools, there was little knowledge of the nutritional aspects of foods, Meals were served to fill empty stomachs, The Marshall Christian Training School was second in quality and the Mission School at Majuro Village had the poorest diet.
In the study by Faine and Hereus (24), of the nutritional status of Cook Islanders, 1951, stated that milk ration was introduced in all . the schools in Rarotonga and had been in operation for 18 months and the teachers were enthusiastic.
Such steps are encouraging and indicate that better nutrition for the students is possible and practical. A target for future planning should be well balanced diets for the school children of the Marshall Islands for through better health they will become better citizens in the world of tomorrows
The average of nutrient intake of 163 students from the three Marshallese schools are classified in relation to NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances, The average intakes are given as percentages of NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances, The results are given in Table 15.
The intakes of fat, calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin and ascorbic acid were much below recommended allowances, Ascorbic acid in- takes were lowest for the greatest number of individuals; riboflavin was next, followed by vitamin A, calcium, fat, iron and thiamine. _
For the nutrients with average intake of 90 to 100% or more of NRC recommended allowances, niacin intakes were met by the greatest number of subjects; phosphorus was next, followed by protein and caloriess
ues Es
Classification of averages of Nutrient untake of One Hundred Sixty- Three” Students of Three Bae at schodls in wclatd ton fo eee
Dietary Allowances « eli m ee Le = aaa ie fo: Hav Mecha et : ; teas 32 es ve!
hee iW naa bate ‘Cust, of fern ge nba As > Kuptcn ae of Nal iiécommentied” tare Allowancés
joj as —— and_over 70 to 89@ - Under 706+»
oar? ee individuals )-.. - ty...
Calories 7 | a Gi) 2) 369: oS Bdge 7 oF Protein pan ees On eee ote (1 ee 36 ee ‘ a cay oe : peaeiinge Calcium eh ee pat 0 16 | | Mee wPnosphstis nae oA ue he be on aa ate bon sR ee ee a 88 Vitamin 4 — ee | Pe 10. Thiamine ea i sh i aavippgind. auntiniel os agin Mk aimee Riboflavin A ae 2 : 12 : eae. ee ae ee ees ee logy Ane amchans po 29
‘Ascorbic Acid’. | ae ie, Sana olla oe
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FOOD HABITS AND DIETARY PATTERNS IN OUTLYING SECTIONS OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS »
PURPOSE lag. To ay ‘food calael ts of the ac uec islands as the Marshall islands cousisting of tweaty=nine coral atolls and five small coral islands
which are scattered over an ocean area of BseEhy 200,000 square miles.
2, To observe the Mierehaliase in apap own carieounant, with ona minimum of foreign a0e SHenee
hota 30: To gather information to help in understanding their. food. problems. - -PROCE DURE
A field trip was taken on an LST for the period of February 16 to March 2,,.1951. The following places were visited:
oe Me jit Atoll, Wejit Island 2. Utirik Atoll, Eta gland Ge Calueeligi sy hue wislend 4, Likiep Atoll, Likiep Island 5o. Wotje Atoll, Ormej:Iisland. 6. Maloelap Atoll, Kater Island
7. Aur Atoll, Tabal Island
8. Arno Atoll, Ine Island
9. Kili Atoll, Kili Island. om 10. Mili Atoll, Nallu Island
RESULTS As the time spent at each Selena irae of shore queath on. ie was
not possible to do any detailed study,. but some inhomnsaiQnivas acquired
which is recorded in summarized form.
MEJIT
Me jit Atoll, Mejit Island. Arrived on February 17, 1951 at 7:40 Qe Me and departed on the same ‘day at 5:00 p. m. Location: Latitude 10 degrees 15'N., Longitude 170 degrees 52'E,
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Pandanus fruit was plentiful. Adults and children were eating raw pandanus fruit. They were constantly eating these "keys" for meals and also for between meal snacks. Pandanus fruit was also boiled and eaten. In many homes, the women took the boiled pandanus and used an instrument called the "beka" to scrape the edible portion from the fibrous material to make a puree which had a consistency of mashed sweet potatoes. This mixture also tasted very much like sweet potatoes. © Pandanus was eaten as a puree, or in many instances, mokmok (arrowroot flour) and’ grated: coconuts were added and the mixture made into a tee patty This was wrapped in dried pandanus leaves. :
Walking along the main road, a family invited us to lunch. The family group was seated sround the cooking pit and they were eating their noon meal. They were baking fish in the pit where coconut husks and pan-— danus husks were used for firewood. By removing skins and bones, only the flesh of the fish was eaten, Bones were thrown to the dogs and cats. A large tuna was caught that day so chunks of fish about an inch square were sliced and eaten raw with chunks of mature coconut meat. Drinking coconuts were used in place of water, Hands were used in eating, and at the end of the meal, a bucket of water was brought to the guests so that their hands” may be washed. Iu (embryo of the sprouting coconut) was tasted, Several children ate with us. They were eating mere (spoon meat) and jekaro (coco= nut sap)e There were many pandanus, breadfruit, and coconut trees on the island. Most of the homes had for cooking facilities a pit for: baking and roasting and a separate place for boiling food, These cooking areas were near the lagoon under the shade of the coconut trees.
UTIRIK
Utirik Atoll, Utirik Island. Arrived February 18, 1951 at 7 ae mo departed same day at 6:00 po. m. Location; Latitude 11 degrees 15'N., Longitude 169 degrees 45'E. Lies, FOG
Arrived on a Sunday. On the island were coconut palms, pandanus trees, and arrowroot; but no taro, A delicacy made of cooked pureed pan- danus fruit and grated coconuts wrapped in dried pandanus leaf was tasted. It was sweet and tasted like a sweet potato pudernes They were unable to catch fresh fish at this time of the year. eR i AILUK
Ailuk Atoll, Ailuk Island. Arrived on February 19, 1951 at 6:00 &. mM. departed on February 21, 1951 at 9:00 a. me Location: Latitude 10 degrees 20% Ne, poaee ae 169. Goerces 55'Be
Banadinat’ jandanie. coconuts, aetowroos and trenafrutt were available on this island, although breadfruit was not yet in season.
Observed the making of mokmok (arrowroot flour). Raw arrowroot resembles a small potato.
‘Steps taken in the making of mokmok: — 1. Peel arrowroot
2. Take raw arrowroot and grind in pan with a stone
=a
Se Put ground raw arrowroot in a cloth such as cheesecloth.
4, Put the mixture in the cheesecloth on a sieve placed over a large tub half filled with salt water.
55. Take a dipper of salt water from this pan of salt water, pour over mixture on the sieve, while stirring
6. Continue process until all starch is washed out. Throw away waste ect 3
7, The product in tub usually is milky white in the beginning and becomes yellowish brown as starch settles to bottom
8. After starch settles at bottom, decant salt water
vrayhs
9, Starch stays on the bottom of the tub 10. Fill tub half full of salt water and stir all évgr agein
ll. Let starch settle and decant salt water to get rid of bitter taste
12, Put in cloth, tie at top and let hang from ceiling until it hardens
13. Dry outside in sun until powdery 14. Scrape mokmok from cloth 15, Put in woven basket and use as needed
Mokmok is boiled in water and jekaro is added to this mixture, It is then boiled until it becomes a translucent starchy mixture. While hot, it is made into large patties and rolled in grated coconuts, Jekaro is collected in bottles, These bottles of jekaro are kept hanging under the beams in their homes. Jekaro is used for drinking purposes and also in cooking, As it was pandanus season both raw and boiled pandanus fruit was tasted.
Chickens and pigs and sea fowls called "nana," which are used
for food was observed. Nip,
In going through the cook OUSH observed that the standard equipment were as follows:
a beka--grater used for pandanus fruit a ranke--grater for coconuts um=--pit for baking and roasting
large pot--to boil food |
knife
| i
= es
They did not seem to observe regular hours for meals but ate whenever they felt like eating. Food was distributed to everyone, Drinking coconuts were used extensively. i
LIKIEP
.. Likiep Atoll, Likiep Island. Arrived on February Pai 1951 at 3:00 pe m. and departed on February 23, 1951 at 7;00 a. m. Locatdons Latitude 09 degrees 45°N,, Longitude 159 degrees AQ*Be
Visited the native village and observed people cooking. "Iu" (eoconut embryo) was the predominant. food used at this times , Many bottles — were seen hanging on coconut trees for collecting jekaro, oe
At .one..cookhouse, iu was pounded with. a wooden mallet and mixed with jekaro to make lukor, At another place, they were ‘making ainbat iu with mokmok and jekaro (boiled coconut embryo with arrowroot flour and coconut saps
Yellow pumpkin was popular, Rice was used in their diet as a staple food. A family was seated in their home where they were eating rice with canned salmon and eee. A, small child was eating pancakes and apices seuss ai enipee
Chicvens and ates were seen. Mery Asvete fresh fish was found in and around cookhouses.
WOTJE
Wotje Atoll, Ormej Islend, Arrived on February 23, 1951 at 5330 pe Me, departed. on February 24, 1951 at 4:00 ps m, Location: Latitude 09 aes 25% Ne, iui 170 degrees Es
Ne Co arrival, went with’ ‘dntetpreter and visited. ali the -cookhouses. in ae island. “Chief Lanimoj, their Chief, was to attend the council meeting so much of the food. preperation, for ¢ the day was for food! of ferings aS which were brought to pay.,homage to 9 Redlle v Many of the dishes were made. oF : mokmok or, arrowroot flour. , ae | nee Chief Lanimoj had baked turtle, baked fish, drinking coconuts end jekaro for lunch. Food was carried in small baskets made of coconut leaves. Coconuts, mokmok, pandanus fruit, chicken, breadfruit and: other B gift items were iprocented to Chief tenia)
MALOELAP
Mealoelap Atoll, Kaben Island. Arrived on February 25, 1951 at 7:00 @. me departed same day at 11:00 ae me Location: Latitude 08 degrees 42°N., longitude 171 degrees E. This is a low, flat coral island located at the northwestern end of the atoll. It is 1 We miles dene end 1/4 mile wide. y
Coconuts, pandanus, arrowroot, papayas, bananas, pumpkins, chicken, pork and sweet potatoes were seen. Breadfruit will be added to their diet when the breadfruit season begins. Fish is added to the diet when fresh fish or canned fish is available.
Bee AUR
Aur Atoll, Tabal Island. Arrived on February 25, 1951 at 2:00 Po M. and departed same day at 6:30 pe me. Location: Latitude 8 degrees 1O'N., longitude 171 degrees 10’E. Tabal is the largest island of Aur Atoll and iies in the center of the atoli. It is a low flat coral island about 11/2 miles long and about 1/2 mile wide.
There were coconut trees, breadfruit, pandsnus, papayas, sweet potatoes, few bananas, pumpkin, pork and chicken. Rice, flour, sugar, tea and coffe were bought in from the outside.
Oe
“4 Arno Atoll, Ine Island, Arrived on February 26, 1951 at 7:00 a. me and departed same day at 11:00 a. m. Location: Latitude 7 degrees 5'N,, longitude 171 degrees 40'E,
Ine Island, is a low, flat coral island, located on the southern rim of the atoll, It is about 13 miles long end about 1/4 mile wide. The island has coconut trees, breadfruit and pandenus treese
Coconuts, pandanus, breadfruit, bananas, papayas, limes, fish, pork and chicken were available, Rice, sugar, flour and live ducks were left by the field party.
They were preparing boiled breadfruit and chicken but did not stay long enough to taste the finished product.
KILI
Kili Atoll, Kili Island. Arrived on March 1, 1951 at 6:00 a. m. departed same day at 7:00 pe me Location; Latitude, 5 degrees 30'N., longitude 169 degrees O0°E. ei
MILI
Mili Atoll, Nallu Island. Arrived on Merch 2, 1951 at 7:00 &o m, and departed same day at 12:00 m.- Location: Latitude, 6 degrees 15'N., longitude 172 degrees OO0*°E.
Kili and Mili were not visited as it was not possible to go ashore.s Returned to Majuro Atoll at Uliga on March 2, 1951 at 7:00 pe mo
On many islands, rice, flour, sugar, biscuit, coffee and tea were left in exchange for copra. Rioe was imported from Siam, flour and biscuits from Japan. Tea, soy sauce, sugar, and coffee from the U. S. A., and corned beef from Argentina, Such items were sent in from either Kwajalein or Majuro. Utirik and Ailuk were the poorer islands and not owning boats to bring in supplies and take out copra, they are dependent on the field trip ship for supplies. In Mejit, native boats were available, so there is regular transportation between ilejit and the other atolls. Kwajalein supplied Kili with food,
=e
The transportation of food to the outlying atolls is a difficult task, Often a sailing craft gets close to an island or atoll but is not able to go ashore because of coral reefs. and the tide. For atolls such as Me jit or Kiii, a small boat is necessary in order to go over the reefs, _ which means that getting food ashore is dangerous and supplies often get so wet before they get to shore. that. they have to be | left in the sun: to - drye
Often the larger vessels will anchor. outside of the lagoon and. all supplies’ including food lave to be taken over by a smaller boat. re. many places there were three transfers, one from the LST to an ICVP, second, to an outrigger canoe which carried food to a place near shore, and third, to a man who had to carry food on his back and wade to shore. For renee, at Arno.a box of ducks were to be left. but since it was impossible to carry the Jarge box on an outrigger it was necessary to have the ducks swim. ashore,
DISCUSSION AND. CONCLUSION
The extensive use of arrowroot flour, mokmok (Tacca leontopetaloides (L} Ktzee was.noted. In the Nerthern islands, arrowroot flour was used much more extensively than on _Majuro island during the same periods.
Pandanus was in season and many prepared dishes of ie datas fruit were observed, More time was soent in food preparatic: than on Majuro and more local foods were used. However they were still de pendent on imported foods as some of the vegetable and fruit crops are not grown on the islands; for example, Utirik, did not have a taro crop. In Ailuk, the breadfruit . ssason had not started and imported foods were a necessity until the bread- fruit season begane
It was extremely difficult to sot food to some of the outlying ~ districts, due in part to an inadequate transportation system. Coral reefs made the approach to Kili hazardouse
so PART II
NUTRITION STUDY ON UDOT ISLAND, TRUK DISTRICT, EASTERN CAROLINE ISLANDS
Udot Island liss 7°23* North, 151943" East and about 3 miles westward of Fefan Island, It is about 2 1/4 miles long, east and west, and the highest point is 791 feet at its northwestern part. There are six villages on the island,
Ie Planning and organizing the surveye
Much of the planning and organizing of the survey was done on Udet Island. Unlike the study in the Marshall Islands, it was not possible to learn about the Trukese foods, native terminology for common foods, and preparation of foods as done previously at the base before going to the island to be studied, as most of the administrative staff members were new and were not familiar with the Trukese way of life and transportation was difficult to obtain.
By observing the native viliage on Moen, Truk, where the base was located, it was noted that many of the foods consumed were similar to those of the Marshall Islands, although the language was different, and new food terms would have to be learned. The knowledge gained from the research in the Marshall Islands helped the investigator gather — information quickly as compared to the first study.
The chief of Truk atoll was visited with a gift and the survey was explained through an interpreter. The discussions with the anthropologist about the manner of life, religion, and politics of the . Trukese gave background material for the study.
1, Unit of survey
A household was used. A group who lived and ate together, | usually consisting of blood relatives and relatives by adoption, was considered a household group.
Be Sampling
Statistics were not available and since there were six villages relatively close together, in order to get a representative sample all the inhabitants of the island, who were residing on the island at that time, were included in the study. The six villages included were Wonip, Tunnuk, Fonomo, Monowe, Ilitu and Pinine.
S$, Time Period A seven-day period was chosen. The diet on Udot Island goes through seasonal changes, and there was monotony of diet and very little
day to day variation during the period observede
4. Interpreter
The interpreter hired lived in the village and knew local foods and sources from which they were obtaineds
=178— 5. Record forms
Formal record forms were not used. Informal records of diary type were kept in bound notebooks in a uniform’ manner. ~
6. Publick ty i. ous
Personal visits. ‘with gifts were made ‘to the ‘leaders ‘of their differ- ent villages ‘who passed the information on to their subjects. Most of the villagers had read an article in a Honolulu Japanese paper about the’ study in the Marshall Isiands, so they knew about the study.
II. Nutrition Survey
‘1. \Preparation for survey on Udot Island.
“After making arrangements with “Ayster Irons for housing on Udot | Island, and taking the necessary provisions, mattress, kerosene lamps; mo— squito netting, pots and pans, his boat was taken to Udot Island. He ‘took the investigator over to the island and introduced her to his family ‘but - returned the same day to Moen, as hé made his Heedater eer on Moen, Truk.
lg Bae The housekeeping and cooking units were set up ‘in the house. Little pilot work was done on Moen as the time spent was of short. duration. It was, therefore, necessary that observations of ‘the local situation be made and contacts made before actual field work could get underway.
Each survey is unique and has its ow problems. The villages were separate units:and.as Udot.was a "high! volcanic island, to get from one village to another was difficult as trails went up and dom hills and over rough terrain. Many of the paths were overgrowm with grass and foliage and were difficult to follow. Homes ,were scattered in the hills. ‘After rain- fall, roads were washed out or they were so slippery that it was dangerous to try and climb the hill paths so the lagoon paths along the, boulders were used in most cases. Instead of taking the inland trails, taking the shore- line and yeodne up. the: rOCENs voads was .time Savane and safer...
With ne help of 5 phe oerec tor nen visits were made with’ gifts to the headman of each village. At this time, the survey was out- lined with each one and their permission was obtained to proceed with the survey.
Thess ielerde was | predominantly Catholic ae they had one church for EEO UCSHenEe
Beta any “home visits core. be Baron the Trukese enme om common, native foods, the preparation of foods, the ingredients and methods of preparation all had to be learned.
HFG.
A LIST OF TRUKESE FOODS WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION IN ENGLISH OF EACH FOOD
TRUKESE ENGLISH Mek cn, . Breadfruite
Varieties of breadfruit Achapar | ie Second largest variety. Enim Paine | : : | | Faiton Faiyor NN
Fanpuasuk ...
Kisenges Moikoch Se as re | Meiyon 7 “Make into kon only. ) | Meichon — ke : _ Can be eaten any way. ua i) ole Largest variety. i Newotea.. ie | MS oes toe iktne ob cute a i Sawan Gey ne. | i initia. |. | Oneas Seeded variety, flesh can be eaten raw. i Mei um Breadfruit, baked in earth oven i Mei ainbat Breadfruit, boiled i| Notsupost Breadfruit, roasted. .After roasting, put i in water, scrape off skin, and eat. Mi
TRUKESE °- >=.
Kon
Ror or opou
Ammach
Emesefich
Arung or appuch
Apot
Apot mei mon
Apot mei pupu
Nu Kinds of coconuts Nu yon Nu won ”’ « Nu cha
Nu arau
-~180- ENGLISH
A breadfruit preparation, Breadfruit is first. © steamed then pounded until consistency is like dough. Made into loaves about 10 pounds each, Most popular staple food during breadfruit season.
Breadfruit is first roasted and charred. Skin is removede Remaining edible portion is ahem or glided and coconut milk added,
A very ripe meichon breadfruit which had been *~ kept 10 days until soft is used. It is then _ baked and coconut milk added. ns
Steamed breadfruit is pomded and coconut oil ~~ added rn)
Breadfruit is roasted and skin removed. ‘Edible portion is pounded; Faster pounding movements are used than for kon. This is necessary to keep breadfruit sticky. Small pieces are nee and made into dumplings and coconut milk is: added, “Armg"” means coconut milk, This pre- paration is called arung or appucho A Pts
Breadfruit preserved by fermentation. Left to. ferment in holes dug in earth for about two to three months. Can be kept for a year or mofe ‘in these holes, After a year, the food is called autam., * ; ; csi Iii SAG HOCA ed te A preserved breadfruit preparation. After ‘re-.: moving apot from earth, it is then cleaned and kneaded. Water is added and apot is made into. . a soft dough. This is either baked or steamed, A preserved breadfruit preparation. After removing from earth, apot is cleaned and kneaded. Coconut milk is added and mixture is Seas ‘or bakede
Coconuts.
‘OL Reda oh tips to ripening nuts
Green
TRUKESE
Nu setsusen Nu min
Taka
Nu Appun Trofal
Utsu..
-181- ENGLISH
Sweet but small, ripen all at the same time. Large nuts
Meat of mature coconut, A grater calleda.... pweiker is often used to grate coconuts.
After grating, coconut milk or oil is extracted which is used for flavoring foode
Drinking fluid of the immature nut.
Soft spoon meat of the immature drinking nut.
Embryo of the sprouting coconut.
Banana e
Varieties of bananas
Utsupun, Ame se bok eae Ujirek Ujitopu Pannn Puupu Wiss Peressin Ponapei Tanan Utsu Feiru Anni ra Mangko Peinaper Sassaf
Naimis
Large bananas,
Brazilian varioty, spilt Hk Ponape o nie | Large bananas baked with grated coconutse.. i Trukese chestnuts. se i a it Mangoe so et H| Pineapple,
Soursope
Lime a Ai | {
ENGLISH
Kurukur Sennia Kitppau Oni
Ka
Puna
Simiden
Nopur
Ep
Apue reka Emechimech Mon
Apuch Kap
Asas
Kamuti Wo
Fats Fatsira’ Fatessis Moniok Moknok Kunger
Sim
-182- TRUKESE Orange.
Watermelon.
BER ‘
~ Dry and eee tare. Colocasia esculenta.
Dry lands Alocasia nacrorshiza.
Wetland. cyrtospems . chami ssonis,
Swamp taro, imported from the Marshalls or Nukuoroe
Morinda citrifolia, eaten only during faminese Dioscorea alata, yame —
Dioscorea bulbifera, poor quality yam eaten = in panies Nery batter.
Ipomoea. digitata, Like burdock root, caton raw alsose Bray
Spondias dulcis Forst. f. Fruit with thorny. ~ centers
Crataeva speciosa, a fruit, common on Nomwin.
Yam
Terminalia catappa, Singapore almond, Nuts used for food, eaten after drying. PR VE
Sweet potato.) °°.” ‘be Sugar cane. ‘ie
Pandanuse
Edible pandanus. ©
Edible pandanus., ©"
Tapioca.
Arrowroote
Cucumber.
Clams.
Pik, soi
Pik, ainbat
Tikit
Penichon
Win or Puapua Kutsu
Kou
Chuko
Chek
Arar
Esies
Ponik
_, Ekiek
Mipauane
S183
ENGLISH
Clams. Octopus. Pige
Baked pige Salted pigs Boiled pige Fishe Porpoise. Shark. Whale.
Eel, fresh water.
' Species of black trepang, commonly known’as. .
see. slug, sea cucumber, or beche-de-mer. Turtle. Goate
Cow.
Chicken.
Duck.
Tern, white with black lines on head. White or "fairy" term, common bird. Tern, black with white on top of head. White terne
Whitish brown sea bird.
White heron.
small unidentified land bird.
Large unidentified sea bird. |
Beye
ta
Next to a house where the investigator lived, was a household where they did all the cooking in their cookhouse. By observing and asking questions, all this information was collected. By walking through” the viilage and visiting with the villagers it was possibie to learn more about their food and food patterns.
At the same time, enough knowledge of the language was gained TO) converse in Trukese to understand the interviews between the interpreter § and the subjects of the survey.
The type and extent of waste were investigated in detail. Data were acquired on how much the average loaf of "kon" weighed, the amount. of drinking fluid from one immature nut, how much edible portion could be obtained from one sweet potato and other similar facts.
Foods such as boiled rice and breadfruit were weighed to determine in grams the amounts in housshold measurements.
Most household utensils were alike as the source of supply was the same o ;
Several types of fish were weighed after cooking, to determine’ ~ edible portions by removing wastage and refuse such as bones, head, and entrails. Others which were saten whole, such as Musum, small fish, were. weighed per serving.
Recipes were made up for mixed cooked dishes. Many samples of these dishes were ECU Ry back to aaa for chemical food analyses. |:
2. Routine sehen of the interview
The number interviewed averaged aydee six households daily. The visits were fewer in number as compared to the Marshall Island survey as distances were greater from one village to another and roads were poorer, In order to avoid the hot sun, traveling was done during the cooler time of the day, the walk to another village started about 6 in the morning and the return trip was about 7 at night.
Daily visits were made to the households, The first visit was an orientation period with discussions about the survey, procedure and data to be collected. Various utensils for eating were shown so that accurate recordings could be made such as cupfuls, spoonfuls, and other household measurements. Information about the household was recorded at this time.
A day's record was to be kept in Trukese and they were to be collected the following day. It was difficult to have them give individual food intakes as they spoke in terms of how miuch the household unit consumed, therefore, records were kept of total consumption per household with in- formation about special cdses, such as focd intake of a smaller child, who had special foods, but in most instances individual intakes were taken. Number of meals consumed daily and the time of meals varied cosiderably. Having more households to cover with greater distances in between and a shorter time for the survey, two interpreters were hired to help collect data. Investigator went with the interpreters on initial visits, to ex-= plain the survey, and take down the necessary information about the house= hold. Investigator went with each one on alternate days, when they made daily visits, as they were covering villages on both ends of the island.
-185-
Data were brought back daily at the end of the day and they were recorded in notebooks. Any doubtful data or mistakes were discovered and the next time the investigator visited the households, which was each second day, they were clarified by questioning the subjects, 3. Data collected. a. Basic data.
1. Kinds of foods eaten.
2,. Distribution of foods among meals and between meal "feedings,
3. Amounts eaten in terms of -— numbers of foods, servings, or household measurements.
4. Time period of seven days, b. Information about household. 1. Composition of the family. a. Number. be Sex. c. Age to nearest year. d. Other members of the household, @. Names -= all names used in the past. f. Other relevant information. 1. Pregnancy. 2. Lactation. ge Occupation, “‘h, TIliness. c. Data of a household for one week. Trukese Household ‘l. Information about the household. : Members of the household.
1. Male, 45 years old, husband, copra maker.
2. Female, 41 years old, wife, lactating.
3. Male, 16 years old, sone Ht
~186—
4. Female, 5 years old, daughter. i : 5. Male, 2 years old, sori. . ,
24 \Focd data.
Tuesday Rice, boiled, white ‘ 1500° gins’. (3°3 lbs.) Octopus, boiled : nm 100 gms (0.9 lb.)
“Kon, steamed, pounded breadfruit 10 Ibs. Coconut, drinking, fluid only eres Bananas, cooking Monies)
Sieh gt
2 year old son
Sugar cane juice (extracted) 2 stalks’
Rice, boiled, white 2 tablespoons Milk, breast can ad libitum Wednesday
Kon, steamed, pounded preadfruit 10 lbs. Hh uw Bi Salmon, red, canned aids Fish, Motsu, baked 500 gms. (1.1 lbs.)
2 year old son
Breadfruit, roasted "400 gms. (0.9 Ib.)
Coconut , = oiaterayal fluid’
only i
Milk, breast _ad libitum Thursday e
Kon, steamed, pounded breadfruit 10 lbs. Fish, Motsu, baked _ 500 gms. (1.1 lbs.) 2 year old son Breadfruit,. roasted * 400 gms. (0.9 lb.)
Coconut, drinking, fluid,: only au
Milk, breast “ag libitum
~1e7u
Friday Kon, steamed, pounded breadfruit Fish, Musum, boiled
Coconut, drinking, fluid only.
2 year old son Breadfruit, ered Milk, breast _ Saturday
Kon, steamed, pounded breadfruit
hihi Fish, ekeful, baked
Coconut, drinking, fluid only
2 year old son
Breadfruit, roasted
Coconut, drinking, fluid ony
Milk, bees Sunday fen apteanedeue at edioneet tai Richy Mokeus aeakee | 2 year old _son
Breadfruit, roasted
Milk, breast . neat
rt Monday ‘i aa a j Kon, steamed, pounded: breadiruit .Fish, Ikeson, baked . | - 2 year old som Cracker
Coconut, drinking, fluid only
Milk, breast
10 lbs. 4500.gms. (9.9 lbs.) a}
400 ems. (0.9 1b.)
ad libitum
10 lbs,
1000 gms. (2.2: lbs»):..
2
400 gms. (0.9 lbs.)
a
ad libitum
10 Ibs,
300 eka, 0. 6 lb. Nae
300 ems. (0.6 Ib.)
ad, dabstames« +
»
| 10 dese
- 300'gns. (0.6 2b.)
"20 gms. (1 cracker) il
ad libitum
-188- Tuesday ‘Kon, steamed, pounded breadfruit 10 lbs. Fish, Motsu, baked -400 gms, (0.9 1b.) 2 year old son Cracker 20 gms. (1 cracker)
Coconut, ore» fluid only ae
Milk, breast ad libitum Treatment of Dietary Survey Data and Assessment of the Adequacy Diets
The same procedures were followed for the treatment of the dietary survey data and the assessment of the adequacy of diets as found in the nutrition study of the Marshall Islands,
RESULTS
! Table 16 gives the results of the dietary: study of Trukese of Udot, Truk District, Caroline Hee
The daily quantities ce. various “averienvel per person and compar- ison with National Research Council Allowances: for: 290 Trukese were noted,
The subjects are divided into different age groups, giving the number of subjects in each group, sex, range of each nutrient, number of subjects in each group, average, NRC allowances, number -below allowances, and percent of subjects below allowances for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid.
le Calories
Tn each age group, some of the subjects were above allowances and others. were below allowances except the males of the 16 to 20 years age group. In this instance, all seven subjects or 100% were below allowances. Among the lactating women and males of the 13 to 15 age group, the percentage below allowances were high, 89% and 86% respectively. 1 to 3 years of age group and females 21-to 60 years age group had lower per- centages of subjects below allowances with 42% and 46%, respectively. De- viations of the other groups were between these two figures.
For the total group of 290 Trukese, 186 subjects or 64% were below NRC allowances, and 104 subjects or 36% were above NRC allowances.
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Bd Protein
All seven male subjects of the 16 to 20 years age group or 100% were below allowances, Lactating women and male subjects, 13 to 15 years, of age, had a high percentage of subjects below allowances with 85% and 86%, respectively. Male subjects of the 21 to 60 years age group and female subjects of 21 to 60 years age group had a low per-= centage of subjects below allowances, 45% and 36%, respectively. Deviations of the other groupswere between these two figures.
For the total group of 290: Trukese, 162 subjects or 56% were below allowances and 128 or 44% were above allowances,
5. Fat...
In all age groups, 100% or all subjects were below allowances, except the 7 to 9 years age group where 89% were below allowances,
For the total group of 290 Trukese, 288 subjects or 99% were below allowances and two subjects or 13 were above allowances,
Le Calcium |
Of all age groups, males 13 to 15 years of age had the highest percentage of subjects below NRC allowances with 56% below allowances, This group was followed by the 10 to 12 years age group, 1 to 3:.years age group, and lactating women with 52%, 50%, and 48% of the subjects below NRC allowances, respectively. Males 61 and over group had a low percentage of subjects below NRC allowances with 8% below allowances, Females of the 61 years and over group, and females of the 21 to 60 years. group had 20% and 25% of the subjects below allowances,
For the uote group of 290 Trukese, 97 subjects or 33% were below allowances and 193 subjects or 67% were above allowances.
5. Phosphorus
91% of the 1 to 3 years age group were below NRC allowances, All other groups had 80% or more of the subjects below NRC allowances with the exception. of females 16 to 20 years of age; males 16 to 20 years of age; and females, 61 years and over group; with 75%, 71% and. 70%, respectively.
For the total group of 290 Trukese, 212 subjects or 73% were below allowances and 78 subjects or 27% were above allowances.
6. Iron
100% or all of the subjects of the following groups were below NRC allowances: 1 to 3 years old; 4 to 6 years; 10 to 12 years; 13 to 15 years; males, 16 to 20 years; females, 16 to 20 years; and lactating
-210—
women, 85% of the subjects were below NRC allowances for males of the 13 to 15 years old group,
For the total group of 290 Trukese, 282 subjects or 97% were below NRC allowances and 8 subjects or 3% were above NRC allowances.
7. Vabanin
100% of the subjects were below NRC allowances for all groups with the exception of the 4 to 6 years old group and males of the 21 to 60 years old group where 95% and 97% of the subjects were below NRC allowances, respectively,
For the total group of 290 Trukese, 287 subjects or 99% were below NRC allowances and 3 subjects or 1% were above NRC allowances.
8. Thiamine
100% of the subjects were below NRC allowances for males of the 13 to 15 years old group and males of the 16 to 20 years old group. The 1 to 3 years old group had 34% of the subjects below NEC allowances. The other groups varied from 41% to 80% of the subjects being below NRC allowances,
‘For the total group of 290 Trukese, 170 subjects or 58% were below allowances and 120 subjects or 42% were above allowances.
9. Riboflavin
100% of the subjects of every group were below NRC allowances, except the 1 to 3 years old group and females, 21 to 60 years with 92% and 94% of the subjects below NRC allowances, respectively.
For the total group of 290 Trukese, 288 subjects or 99% were below NRC allowances and 2 subjects or 1% were above NRC allowances.
10, # Niacin “Ae
100% of the males of the 13 to 15 years age group and 16 to 20 years group were below NRC allowances. 52% of the subjects of the 4 to 6 years old group were below NRC allowances, Other groups ranged from 53% to 88% of the subjects being below NRC allowances.
For the total group of 290 Trukese, 197 subjects or 68% were below NRC allowances and 93 subjects or 32% were above allowances. i, “Ascorbic Acid :
100% of the subjects of each group were below NRC allowances
except for the 7 to 9 years old group, where 93% of the subjects were below NRC allowances,
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For the total group of 290 Trukese, 289 subjects or 99% were below NRC allowances and one subject or 1% was above NRC allowances.’’
Children ms to 3 years of age
: baie records for children one to three years of ape were, | collected: for thirty-two subjects, Out of thirty-two subjects,. twelve.) + were weaned and twenty subjects were still breast fed. although other :.° © foods were included in their dietary. Diets of non-breast fed subjects were: calculated and tabulated in Table 16, For breast fed subjects,
calories..and nutrient values were calculated, however, intakes of breast... feeding’ were not recorded. Therefore, all calculations ogee iP chaguianagee ee
milk tnbaless
; Fischer: (25) reported the: lies! an her wre "Mothers: ots 33 ‘chjddeon under six years of age were.consulted.as to the.types of!
food: eaten by their,children. Only,children under the age of. eight.months- were reported. as-limited in their diets. In addition to thé breast, these younger children were observed to eat sugar cane, sugar. and coconut waters®
For the one bottle baby in this group, sugar was added to the baby's milk .o... Babies of eight months and older were eating the regular adult diet, pounded breadfruit, roasted fish, etc., in addition to the milk :
obtained from the mother. Only two babies as old as two-years were. fotnd:: who had not been weaned and were not: being fed entirely on adult: foods."
In regard to the unweaned baby, mothers were asked when they expected to wean them. These cates, ran Letiead qne to. three years." :
A few records are given as Dcalina of quantities ene tiaras 4 of food given to breast fed children of this age group.
One female child of one year had boiléd:white rice and: drinking fluid of the immature coconuts in her diet. The daily intake was estimated at 220 gms, of coconut. fluid, and 100 gms. of boiled white rice. Calculated daily caloric and nutrient values were as follows: calories, *:
390; protein, & gms,; fat, 0.43.gms.3 carbohydrate, 88 gms.; calcium, 50 °"*
mgse; phosphorus, 99mgs.; iron, 0,20 mgs.; vitamin A, none; thiamine, 39 nee riboflavin, 21 mcgs.; nines i, 6 mgs,; and ascorbic acid, 2 mgs »
One female child of one year had the following foods in her diet: soda crackers, drinking fluid of immature coconuts, and boiled white rice.. The daily intake was estimated at ¢ » gms, of soda crackers,. 342 gms. of coconut fluid, and 50 gms, of boiled white rice.; Calculated
daily caloric and nutrient values were as follows: calories, 736; protein,
7 gmse3 fat, 3 gms.; carbohydrate, 72 gms.3; calcium, 82 mgs.; phosphorus, © 74 mgs.; iron, 0,8 mgs,; vitamin A, none; thiamine, 37 mcgs.; riboflavin, 34 MCES 3 paaein) 0. 9 vicaaoatan any ascorbic acid, 3 mgs.
One female child of. one: atch had the fplleae foods: in, her
diet: ovied white rice and white bread, The daily intake'was estimated.
at 58 gms, of boiled white rice and 96 gems, of white bread, Calculated daily caloric and nutrient values were as follows: calories, 548; protein, 15 gms.; fat, 2 gms.3; carbohydrate, 116 gms.; calcium, 40 mgs.; phosphorus, 145 mgs.; iron, 3 mgs.; vitamin A, 35:I. U.; thiamine, 535 mcgs.; ribo- flavin, 306 megs.; niacin, 4 mgs.; and ascorbic acid, none,
-212-
One female child of two years had the following foods in her diet; boiled white rice, boiled mackerel, baked breadfruit and drinking ~ fluid of immature coconuts, The daily intake was estimated at 58 gms. of boiled white rice, 128 gms. of boiled mackerel, 107 gms. of baked ‘ breadfruit, and 223 gms. of coconut fluid. Caleulated daily caloric and. nutrient values were as follows: calories, 553; protein, 34 gms.; fat,
10 gms.; carbohydrate, 90 gms.; calcium, 74 mgs.; phosphorus, 451 mgs.; _ iron, 3.mgs.; vitamin A, 197 I, U.; thiamine, 105 megs.; riboflavin, Gdn HOES +3 EC 2 Mgse$ and ascorbic acid, 4 MES o eR uli
One’ male child. of two years had the peda cine foods in mae diets sugar cane (pounded and juice extracted), boiled white rice, roasted ~ breadfruit, soda crackers, and fluid of immature coconuts. The daily si take was estimated at 389 gms. of sugar cane, 10 gms. of boiled white he rice, 270 gms. of roasted breadfruit, 137 gms. of coconut fluid, and 3 gms, of: soda crackers. Calculated daily caloric and nutrient’ values were as follows: calories, 566; protein, 4 gms.; fat, 1 gm.; carbohydrate, © ie 187: gms.; calcium, 146mgs.; phosphorus, 158 mgs.; iron, 5 TES » 3 vitamin A, 186 I. U.3 thiamine, 376 mcegs:; nipotiaven 200 megslas 3 a and. ascorbic acid, 3 mgs. ne Le PrN : ee ik
Ges One male: child of three years had the pales foods in nis eel diets roasted breadfruit, bananas, and drinking fluid of immature coconuts. The, daily intake was estimated at. 240 gms. of coconut fluid, 300 gms. of ~ roasted breadfruit, and 100 gms. of bananas. Calculated aaa caloric and nutrient wales were as follows: calories, 556; protein, 5 gmse; - 2 fat, 1 gm.; carbohydrate, 131 ents calcium, 126mgs.; phosphorus, 166 mgs.; iron, 2 MES « 5 vitamin A, 1046 I. U.3 thiamine, 281 MCES « 5 riboflavin, 205 mcegs.; niacin, 3 mgs.3 and eacoser pacts 30 cre iis
Children and adult male Sebieee
Table 17 summarizes thé deity! gantattes of various nutrients per .person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances of ao and ae male subjects of Udot, Truk District, Caroline tees
. There were 173 subjects as PoLLGae: 1 22 ines _ females betueen the ages of 1 through 3 years of age; 21 males and females between the ages of 4 through 6 years of age; 18 males and females between the ages of 7 through 9 years of age; and 21 males and females between the ages. of 10 through 12 years of age; 7 males between the ages of 13 through 15 years of age; 7 males between the ages of 16 through 20 years of ages; 75 males between the ages of 21 to 60 ai of ages and ae males, 61 years of ager and over. :
The average iabares NRC allowances, pendent of aiilowanteese percent of subjects below allowances, for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, : Se Sa niacin, and Soheckiee © acid are elven in Table 17.
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-215- I, CHILDR2N |
1 to 3 years of age There were 12 male and female subjects. ALL of the subjects or 100% were below NRC allowances for fat, iron, vitamin | A and ascorbic acid. - 92% of the subjects were below allowances for ribo- | flavin and 91% were below allowances for phosphorus, 34% of the subjects | were below allowances for thiamine, and 42% were below allowances for . calories, 58% of the subjects were below allowances for protein and | niacin, and 50% were below allowances. for calories. |
4 to 6 years of age There were 21 males and female subjects, All of the subjects or 100% were below NRC allowances for fat, iron, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid. 95% cf the subjects were below allowances for vitamin A. 86% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus, 57% of the subjects were below allowances for calories and 52% for niacin. 67% of the subjects were below allowances for protein. 43% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium and thiamine,
7 to 9 years of age There were 18 male and female subjects. All of the subjects or 100% were below allowances for vitamin A and riboflavin. 93% of the subjects were below allowances for ascorbic acid, 89% of the subjects were below allowances for fat; 88% were below allowances for iron and 85% were below allowances for phosphorus, 66% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine and 61% for calories and protein, 55% were below allowances for niacin and 33% were below allowances for calcium,
10 to 12 years of age There were 21 male and female subjects, All f of the subjects or 100% were below allowances for fat, iron, vitamin A, ) riboflavin, and ascorbic acid, 80% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus and riboflavin. 76% of the subjects were below allowances for calories and 71% were below allowances for niacin. 67% of the subjects were below allowances for protein and 52% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium,
III, MALES | i
13 to 15 years of age There were 7 subjects, 100% or all of the | subjects were below allowances for fat, vitamin A, thiamine, ribcflavin, Nt niacin, and ascorbic acid. 86% of the subjects were below allowances if for calories and protein; 85% were below allowances for phosphorus and | iron, 56% were below allowances for calcium. i
16 to 20 years cf age There were 7 subjects. 100% or all of the Vi subjects were below allowances for calories, protein, fat, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid. 71% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus and 28% of the subjects were above allowances.
21 to 60 years of age There were 75 subjects, 100% or all of the subjects were below allowances for fat, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid. 97% of the subjects were below allowances for iron and vitamin A, 72% of the subjects were below allowances for niacin, and 70% for calories, 68% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus and 60% were below allowances for thiamine, 45% were below allowances for protein and 29% were below allowances for calcium.
~216-
61 to 70 years of age There were 12 subjects. 100% or all of the subjects were below NRC allowances for fat, vitamin A, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid, 88% of the subjects were below allowances for iron, 58% of the subjects were below NRC allowances for protein, phosphorus, and niacin. 50% of the subjects were below allowances for calories and thiamine. 8% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium,
Female subjects
Table 18 summarizes . the daily quantities of various nutrients Holo ey person and comparison with National Research Council Allowances for female ‘subjects of Udot, Truk District, Caroline Islands,
There were 117 female subjects as follows: 12 females between 13 and 15 years of age; 12 females between 16 through 20 years of age; 56 females between the ages of 21 through 60 years of age; 10 females, 61 years and over; and 27 lactating women,
The average intakes, NRC allowances, percent of allowances, percent of subjects below allowances for calories, protein, fat, calcium, Phosphorus , vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid are given in Table 18..
iit, . FEMALES
13 to 15 years of age There were 12 subjects. 100% or all of the subjects were below allowances for fat, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid. 75% of the subjects were below wimps for niacin. 67% of the subjects were below allowances for calories. 58% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus and 50% were below allowances for protein. 41% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine and 33% were below allowances for calcium,
16 to 20 years of age There were 12 subjects. 100% or all of the subjects were below allowances for fat, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin and ascorbic acid, 83% of the subjects were below alt@wances for niacin, © 75% of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine and phosphorus. 67% of the subjects were below allowances for protein, ..58% of the subjects were below allowances for calories and 25% of the subjects were below allowances for calcium.
Zit Go 60 years of age There were six subjects. 100% or all of the subjects were below NRC allowances for fat, vitamin A, and ascorbic acid. 94% were below allowances for iron and riboflavin. 66% were below allowances for phosphorus, and 53% were below allowances for niacin, — 46% were below allowances for niacin. 46% were below allowances for calories and 42% were below allowances for thiamine. 36% were below allowances for protein and 25% were below allowances for calcium.
61 to 70 years of age There were ten subjects. 100% or all of the subjects were below allowances for fat, vitamin A, riboflavin and ascorbic acid, 90% of the subjects were below allowances for iron. 70% of the subjects were below allowances for phosphorus and 60% were below allowances
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~218—
for niacin., 50% of the subjects were below allowances for calories, protein arid thiamine. 20% were below ee for calcium, .. ..
Lactating women There were 27 subjects, 100% or all of the subjects were below NRC allowances for fat, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin and ascorbic acid. . 89% of the. eiescees were below atlewsnees for calories and 88% were below allowances for niacin. 85% of the subjects were below allowances for protein and 81% were below allowances for phosphorus,
TTB: of the subjects were below allowances for thiamine and 48% were below allowances for calcium,
‘Classification of averages of nutrient intake lh oth relation to NRC Recommended
Dietary Allowances _
; Table 19 gives the classification of averages of nutrient intake of > 290 Trukese of Udot, Caroline Islands, in relation to NRC Recommended — Dietary Allowances. Classification of average intake is eiven as percentage of NRC Reconmended Dietary Allowances.
For calories, protein, calcium, and thiamine the greatest number of ‘average intakes were in the group which was 90 to EOF of the NRC Recom— mended Dietary Allowances,
Table 19.
Classification of Averages of Nutricnt Intake of 290 Trukese of Udot, Caroline Islands in Relaticn to NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances.
Classification of Average Intake as Percentage of NRC uecomnended Dietary Allowances by mary sural
90-100 70-89 Under
Percent Percent 70. Percent, Calories. * sas 56 tee Protein 150)” 56 agate: Fat 6 7 217 Calcium 198 21 | a ig Phosphorus s 105. 59 | bi M26 Iron iC 139 31 eke Vitamin A ne 3 Bs A a ig 276 Thiamine Bn a | alg \s Weil : “50 107 Riboflavin “ae } eee 36 | 247 Niacin 100. | Gh GO | 130
Ascorbic Acid _ ame) 9 | 279
pie
For fat, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid the greatest number of average intakes were in the group which was under 70% of NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances,
DISCUSSION
Little is known about the physiological requirements of the Trukese for various nutrients.
In order to have some data on body sizes of Trukese, 282 male and female Trukese, from the ages of 1 through 70 years, participants in». this dietary survey, were weighed and measured by the author.
Table 20 shows the weights and heights of 282 male and female subjects from 1 year through 70 years of age. The weights are given in pounds showing-the range and average; heights are given in inches showing the range and 12 a i
The Sense weights of Trukese were compared with average weights of Americans of the same age group to obtain the difference between Trukese and Americans.
Table 21 shows the difference between average body ea of Trukese and American subjects of the same age group.
Trukese subjects had smaller body sizes when compared with American subjects of the same age group, with the exception of females 21 years and over, where the average weight for Trukese females was two pounds heavier than the average weight for American females.
CALORIES
Caloric requirements, using the FAO formula for calculating these .requirements, would be similar to the calculated values for Marshallese as the body sizes of the Trukese are very much like the Marshallese and the mean temperature of Truk is the same as that of the Marshall Islands. For details see section under Discussion in the Nutrition Study of the Marshall Islands.
aDOOe
Table 20.
Weights and Heights of Trukese Subjects
Age Sex Number of Weight (pounds) Height (inches) (yrs.) sub jects Range . Average Range Average IES M ally) 20-230 25 22-30 27 Fe: 15 “f 126=30 25 | =O 27 4-6 M (¢ BO=3D 32 36-40 38 F Lia wonde aeoeed 28 30740" oa OMe 7-9 M: 13 _ 42-60 50 hO=55° of analy ens HO=12 M al2 64-90 78 Us=50 50 ar 9 65-88 erie) nie 90=-b8 eal Bye 13-15% Sor | P SeaTOSL2O HI OT Qa eons 4 anes Eo agad 60 1 oF 12 M525 vnset we OO =50~60\ urea Ehbeae 16-20 M i 95-165 133 ‘SEOs. Ta near | F 12 80-107) iam 55-65 61 21-60 M 75 110-200 38 59-695... . 6h F 56 90-170 Wes el cte apron eign Lian 61-70 M 12 98-160 123 59-69 63. a TOW Bi FO=150) nse ueniy ihe le 56-64 56 . bie, 21.
Comparison of Average Weights of. Trukese with Weights of | Americans Given for Each Age Group in the Table of Recommended Daily Allowances, National Research Council.
Weights of Americans Weights of Trukese bifference Age group. weight in Pounds Weight in Pounds in founds SEISCO) 43° deh ldhe ZY 25 dB ae ee 1 Lo Ge 2 ‘ 30. a 7 tod ies 6 paste BO | | «hi al biseOe et 10: te-12 78 77 sipes 2 13°to 15 (girls) 108 100 8 16 to 20 (girls) 122 12u = 13-to 15° (boys) 108 100 -8 16 to 20 (boys) W1 133 -8 21, and over (females) 123 125 #2
21 and over (males) 154 138 -16
-221~
FOOD ITEMS COMMONLY CONSUMED BY TRUKESE STUDIED IN THIS DIETARY SURVEY
l.
Ze
Se
4,
et iE
BREADS
CEREAL AND CEREAL DISHES
CRACKERS
TRUKESE Pinauwa
Rais
FISH, CRUSTACEA, AND SIMILAR FOODS
TRUKESE Ar Boro Bula
Eni
Fide
Ikechon
Kinfou
Kuo
Meigyogyo
Meich
Musum
Nippach
ENGLISH
Parrot fish
Wrasse
Surgeon fish (Tang)
Sea Bass
' Snapper
Wrasse
Sea Bass
Trigger Fish
‘. Damsel Fish,
Sergeant Major, Squirrel Fish or Soldier Fish
Octopus
Bivalves found in mangrove swamps
Mackerel
Surgeon Fish (Tang)
ENGLISH | Bread, white | i
Rice, boiled, white
Crackers, soda
SCIENTIFIC:
ae
Searus Family Labridas Naso Lituratus :
Cephalopholis Argus (Bloch)
Family Lutjanidae (genus Lutjanus)
Family Labridae
Epinephelus macroe- spilos (?)
Siganus (punctatus?)
Family Balistidae or Monacanthidae |
Siganus Rostratus
Contains several
species belonging at | least to the familiar 1 Pomacentridae and it Holocentridae | Ny
Octcpus (Octopus) sp. (probably 0. 0. | cyanea) aa
Lucina edentula (Linné)
Family Acanthuridae
“220s
_ TRUKESE . ENGLISH SCIENTIFIC Senif | Sardines, small A clupeid fish,
probably of the genus Harergula
., Sewit Scorpion Fish _.. Family Scorpaenidae ©
Sim Clam Hippopus hippopus To Clam Tridacna sp. (probably = T. crocea) Tsufu a Parrot Fish Family Searidas | 5. FRUITS ““TRUKESE = ~~ ENGLISH "“Ytsu - Bananas, raw and cooked ~ ‘Neimis =~ Limes ‘Painaper Pineapple -, , Sasaf | Soursop Mangko Mangoes -Sennia Watermelon -. Kurukur Orange Kippwau Papaya
6. MEATS, FRESH Pik Pig Chuko Chicken Chicken soup
7. MEAT, SAUSAGE AND SIMILAR PRODUCTS
Frankfurters A 8. MILK : 2 Evaporated milk for infants Bei NOLS! iil Nu ih Coconut fluid from the | Roe immature nut Taka Meat from mature coconut Apun. wis Meat often called spoon
‘meat from immature coconuts
Bae
9. NUTS (COKT'D). . TRUKESE ENGLISH Embryo of the | sprouting coconut
Ot or chofar
10. SUGAR
Wo Sugar cane
Suke Sugar, white, refined 11, VEGETABLES
Kon Breadfruit, steamed and
pounded into a loaf
Ainbat mei Breadfruit, boiled
Aponau Breadfruit, baked
Matun Breadfruit, steamed, pounded and coconut milk added -
Ror or opou Breadfruit, roasted, charred,
skin scraped off and baked in
coconut milk og i
Emesifich Breadfruit, steamed, pounded and coconut oil added Kamuti ' . Potato, sweet Pwoteiton Potato, white 12. MISCELLANEOUS Kofi Coffee Ti Tea | Miso soup
BREADFRUIT AND TARO SEASON
Bulk of the breadfruit crop is’ obtained during the main harvest season from July to September. During this season, the surplus is stored as fermented breadfruit, “apot". ij id
Meikoch, a variety of breadfruit, is harvested in October. Meikoch, sawan, and Meiyon are in season from the middle of December un- til the middle of January and in good years until middle of February.
~22h=
Root crops such as puna Mico cenernt chamissonis), ‘taro or. oni (Colocasia esculenta) and dryland taro or ka oe macrorrhiza) and peplesd are cultivated all year round.
RECOMMENDATIONS
fe
See section under Recommendations Based on Dietary Studies in the Nutrition Study of the Marshall Islands.
SUMMARY
Seven-day dietary records of 290 Trukese of Udot, Truk District, Caroline Islands, from thé ages of one to 70 years.iof age were studied for daily quantities of calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, Vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid. These figures were then compared with.National Research Council allowances.
Taking the total group of 290 subjects, the following results were Oba onuee when ae ay HESS were compared Wee NRC allowances:
es Galloviees “186 subjects or es folly NRC allowances and 104 ee es or 367 were above NRC allowances.
"Qe Protein: © 162° hiunteets or Sa? ake below allowances and 128 or 44% were above NRC allowances.”
3a: Fats °188. subjects.or 99% were below NRC allowances and two subjects or 1% were above allowances.
4, Calcium: 97 subjects or 33% were’ below allowances and 193 subjects or 67% were above Ae allowances.
5. Phosphorus; 212 pubecte or 73% were below NRC allowances and 78 subjects or 27% were above NRC allowances.
6. Iron: 282 subjects or 97% were below NRC allowances and eight subjects or 3% were above NRC allowances.
7. Vitamin A; 287 subjects or 99% were below NRC allowances and three subjects or 1% were above NRC allowances.
8. Thiamine: 170 subieate or 58% were below allowances and 120 subjects or 42% were above NRC allowances.
9, Riboflavin: 288 subjects or 99% were wettee NRC allowances and two subjects or 1% were” above. NRC allowances. .
10. Niacin; 197 sauleete or 68% were below NRC allowances and 93 subjects or Boe er above MRC allowances.
11. Ascorbic Acid; 289 subjects or 99% were below NRC plone and one subject or 1% was above NRC. allowanceso a .
pps. PART III
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE NUTRIENT INTAKES OF THE MARSHALLESE OF MAJURO VILLAGE, wARSHALL ISLANDS, AND THE TRUKESE OF UDOT, TRUK DISTRICT, CAROLINE ISLANDS
PURPOSE: To compare the nutrient intakes of the Marshallese of Majuro Village, Marshall Islands, a "low" island; and the nutrient intakes of the Trukese of Udot, Truk District, Caroline Islands, a je island,»
PROCEDURE: As given in section for the Marshall Islands and the Caroline Islands.
RESULTS
t
Table ¢2summarizes the daily quantities of various ‘nutrients per person and comparison with National Research Council allowances of. the Marshallese children of Majuro Village, Marshall Islands and the Trukese children of Udot, Caroline Islands.
There were 120 children. Ages 1 to 3 years: Marshallese, 24; Trukes6, 12, Ages 4 to 6 years: Marshallese, 12; Trukese, 21. Ages 7 to 9 years: Marshallese, 6; Trukese, 18. Ages 10 to 12 years: Marshallese 6; Trukese, 21. .
The average intakes, NRC allowances, percent of allowance, per- cent of subjects below allowances, for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid are given in Table 22.
I. | CHILDREN
1 to 3 years of age In comparing the Marshallese and the Trukese of this age group, for the Marshallese, a greater percentage of subjects were below allowances for all nutrients except niacin. For the Trukese, a greater percentage were below allowances for fat, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin and ascorbic acid. For protein and niacin almost half of the subjects were above and half below NRC allowances. For calciun, it was evenly divided between those above and those below allowances.
4 to 6 years of age For the Marshallese, a greater porcenkege of the subjects were below allowances for all nutrients except iron and niacin. For the Trukese, a greater percentage of the subjects were below allowances for all nutrients except calcium and thiamine. Caloric and niacin intakes were divided with pimose half of the subjects’ above and half below allowances.
7 to 9 years of age For the Marshallese, a greater percentage of the subjects were below allowances for all nutrients except niacin. The per- centage for protein and for iron were divided with half of the subjects above and half below allowances. For the Trukese, a greater percentage — i of the subjects were eae allowances ae all auby Ieaes ee” calcium and Ly niacin.
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10 to 12 years of age For the Marshallese, a greater percentage of the subjects were ‘6 below allowances for all nutrients except niacin, For the Trukese, a greater percentage of subjects were below allowances , for all nutrients except calcium, For calcium almost half of the subjects were below allowances and half were above allowances, :
Table 23 summarizes the daily quantities of various nutrients . per person and comparison with National Research Council allowances of ; the Marshallese males of Majuro Village, Marshall Islands and the Truke se males of Udot, Caroline Islands.
There were 147 males, Ages 13 to 15 years: Marshallese, 5j Trukese, 7e Ages 16 to 20 years: Marshallese, 2; Trukese, 7. Ages 21° to 60 years: Marshallese, 33; Trukese, 75. Ages 61 to 70 years: 2 Marshallese, 83 Trukese, 12, wthae fe 2 i ee ay
The average intakes, NRC allowances, percent of allewancease" percent of subjects below allowances, for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ‘ascorbic acid Bre . given in Table 23, nt) te
II. MALES
13 to 15 years of age For the Marshallese, a greater percentage of the subjects were below allowances for all nutrients. For the Trukese, a greater percentage of subjects were below allowances for all nutrients. | except calcium. Almost one half of the subjects were below allowances and one half were above come for calcium.:
16 to 20 years For the Nershellesc, a eeeeeon percentage of the “subjects were below allowances for all nutrients except protein, phosphorus, - iron, vitamin A, ‘thiamine and niacin. For all these nutrients, one half of the subjects were below allowances and one half were above allowances.:
For the Trukese, a greater percentage of the eubjects were below ad onus for all nutrients except calcium.
2l to 60 years of age For the Marshallese, a greater percentage of the subjects were below allowances for all nutrients; For the Trukese, -@ greater percentage of the subjects were below allowances for all nutrients except protein and calcium. 61 to 70 years of age For the Marshallese, a greater percentage of the subjects wi were beiow allowances for all nutrients except niacin, For the Truke se, a greater percentage of the subjects were below allowances for fat, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid, Almost one half of the subjects were ‘below allowances and one half were above allowances for protein, phosphorus, thiamine, and niacin. ‘For, Gam GD one half were below and one half above NRC. allowances. | : .
Table 24 summarizes: the aay quembeties of various nutrients ‘ per person and comparison with National Research Council allowances of the Marshallese females of Majuro Village, Te | eae and the Trukese females of Udot, Caroline Islands,
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There were 180 females, Ages 13 to 15 years; Marshallese, 3; Trukese,-12. Ages 16 to 20 years: Marshallese, 4; Trukese, 12. Ages 21 to 60’years: Marshallese, 36; Trukese, 56. Ages 61 ta 70 years: Marshallese, 9: Trukese, 10. Lactating women; Marshallese, 11; :Trukese, 27.
‘The average intakes, NRC allowances, percent of allowances, percent of subjects below allowances, for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and a ‘acid are ay ey in Table 24, fy oP
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Til. FEMALES
13 ee 15 years of age For the Marshallese, a greater percentage — of subjects were below allowances for all nutrients. For the Trukese, :: a greater percentage of subjects were below allowances for all nutrients except calcium and thiamine. For phosphorus, almost one half of the subjects’ were above and one half below allowances. For protein, one half were below and one half above NRC allowances.
16 to 20 years of age For the Marshallese, .a greater percentage of subjects were below allowances for all nutrients except phosphorus and iron where one half of the subjects were above and one half below allowances. For the Trukese, a greater percentage of subjects were below allowances | for all nutrients except calcium. For calories, about one half of the sub=: jects were below allowances and one half were above allowances. . pe ‘21 to 60 years of age For the. Marshallese, : ‘a greater percentage of subjects were below allowances for’ all nutrients except niacin. For the Trukese, a greater percentage of subjects were below allowances for all - nutrients except calories, protein, calcium and thiamine. ' Almost a half of the stbjects were below allowances and one ‘half were above allowances - for niacin,
61 to: 70 years of age For the Marshallese, a greater percentage - of subjects were below allowances for all nutrients except niacin. For the Trukese, a greater percentage of subjects were below allowances for ~ fat, ‘phosphorus, | ‘ron, vitamin A, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid. . One half of the subjects were below and one half above allowances for. calories, protein, and thiamine.
Lactating women For the Marshallese, a greater percentage of ‘sub=. jects were below allowances for all nutrients except niacin. For the: Truke sé, a@ greater percentage of ‘the subjects were below ci ae id eer all nutrients except pe totpis
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Classification fel ees ee Nutrient Intake uch f
SOOT ERIE
NRC Recommended Sista Allowances
Table 25 gives the classification of averages of nutrient in- take of 161 Marshallese subjects and 290 Trukese subjects in relation to | NRC Recommended Dietary Allowances. Classification of average intake is given as percentage of NRC dietary allowances. The number of individuals in eneb group is. Been as pe reenteee of Sap Ieces puue ots Fe
aes Calories: % of the tes nda ge and 43% of the Prukese ie were in the 90 to 100% ona 18% of the Marshallese and 19% of the Trukese were in the 70.to 89% group in relation to NRC recommended i allowances, 76% of the Marshallese and 38% of the Trukese were in the i? under 70% groupe |
25 Proteim: 29% of the Marshallese and 52% of the Trukese_ were in the 90 to 100% group, and 27% of the Marshallese and 19% of the . | Trukese were in the 70 to 89% group. 44% of the Marshallese and 29% or the Trukese were in the under Di eroua
3. Fat: 3% of the Marshallese and 2% of the Trulcewe were in the 90 to 100% group; while 2% of the Marshallese and 3% of the Truke se were inthe 70 to 89% group. 95% of both Marshallese and Trukese were in the under 70% group in relation to NRC recommended allowances.
4, Calcium: 2% of the Marshallese and 68% of the Trukese , were in the 90 to 100% group; while 3% of the Marshallese and 7% of ‘the Trukese were in the 70 to 89% group; and 95% of the Marshallese and 25% of the’ Trukese were in the under pore group in relation to NRC recommended : allowances.
5. Phosphorus: 8% of the Marshallese and 36% of the Trukese were in the 90 to 100% group; 9% of the Marshallese and 20% of the Trukese were in the 70 to 89% BreuDs while 83% of the Marshallese and 44%, « of the Trukese were in the under 70% group in relation to NRC recommended . allowances. rei ie
6, Iron: 42% of the Marshallese and 4% of the Trukese were ‘in the 90 to 100% group; 20% of the Marshallese and 11% of the Trukese were in the 70 to 89% group;- while 38% of the Marshallese and 85% of the Trukese were in the under 10% group in relation to NRC recommended . ; ~ allowances. a
7. Vitamin A: 13% of the Marshallese and 1% of the Prukoie were in the 90 to 100% group; 8% of the Marshallese and 4% of the Trukese- were in the 70 to 89% group; while 84% of the Marshallese and 95% of the Trukese were in the under 70%’ group in relation to NRC recommended allowances.
-8, Thiamine: 20% of the Marshallese and 46% of the Trukese were in the 90 to 100% group; 19% of the ‘Marshallese and 17% of the | Trukese were in the 70 to 89% group; while: 61% of the Marshallése and 37% of the Trukese were in the under 70% group in relation to NRC recommended ; allowances.
Heyes Table 25.
“Qlassification of Averazes of Nutrient Intake of Marshallese and Trukese in “Relation to NRC socomuended mae pi bowances«
‘Classification of Averege Intake as Ponesubane of: NRC wdeelaanticd Dietary Nilawiees: Number of Individuals in dach Group Given as te coer of oo
jects Studied. és |
90 to 100 70 to 89: Under (Om ;
Percent Percent . Percent | |
Marshalicse Trukese Marshalicse Trukese Marshaliesc TIrukese ;
Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent
Calories I 43 RE oy 09 78 38 | Protein | 29 52 27 Apdo ill gla
Fat BH ehh, wortig a 3 Poggi! Iso gg
Calcium e 68 3 7 | pee 7 | Phosphorus 8 Bopi al ee eam : 20 hare core e ape Iron ° , 42 | | ok ots “20 odd 2 ala BSE
Vitamin A a i ‘ohiigiog taay 8 4p ay 95 | Thiamine’ Bah Rh, * Bo. Peer aes Be BURY (pee ten rae aubeilavin * Dp ino Wagan Oat tik Sal ee a Cenear sigh
Niacin es nie | ee a Neen “45: |
Ascorbic Acid’ sripaire ¢OOk%. euler a. a “ % 90": sine gge |
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—236— ©
9. Riboflavin: 1% of the Marshallese and 3% of the Trukese were in the 90 to 100% group; 4% of the Marshallese and 12% of the Trukese were in the 70 to 89% group; and 95% of the Marshallese and 85% of the . Trukese. were in the. wnder 70%. Couns ‘in relation ee ‘NRC. recommended eee
10. Niacin: 58% of the Mavchallese and 34%, of “the Tree were in the 90 to.100%. group; 20% of the Marshallese and 21% of the Trukese were in the 70 to 89% group; and 22% of. the: Marshallese and. 45% of the Trukese che were in the under 70% group in relation to NRC recommended allowancese >
ll. Ascorbic acid; 7% of the Marshallese and 1% of the Trukese were in the 90 to 100% groups; 3% of the Marshallese'and Trukese were in the 70 to. 89% group; and 90% of. the ifarshallese and.96% of the Trukese ~Were.in the under .70% group in relation to NRC. recommended .allowancese
cae CEES)
: Data for the Warshail Islands dietary study were collected during , the period from January 18th through May 29th, 1951, while the data for
the Caroline Islands study covered the period-from none 27th through
October 8th, 1951.
The diets of the people are influenced by the seasonal fruits and: vegetables available, so this comparative study does not indicate the ~ differences that exist between the dietaries for the whole twelve months period but shows only the differences or similarities during the seasons when these studies were undertaken, For a true comparison, the studies should be undertaken for a year period.
Marshall Islands is representative of a "low" island and the. Goren Islands, of a “high" island. "Low" islands are coral atolls and "high" islands are of volcanic origin. The supply and variety of vegetables and fruits differ on each of these islands.
The Marshallese of Majuro Village depended more on store goods for their source of food supplies. .For example, rice, sugar, flour and canned goods were predominant in their dietary. Trukese of Udot depended on the sea and their vegetable crops for their existence. Fish, octopus, shellfish, breadfruit, bananas and coconuts were used in greater quantities.
Fish heads and fish bones were not as commonly used in the Marshallese diets while the Trukese took small fish (Musum), boiled them and ate the whole fish including heads, bones, and entrails. The bony structure of fish is high in calcium values and this is one of the reasons why the calcium intake was higher among the Trukese than the Marshallese. 68% of the Trukese were in the group which was 90 or 100% of the NRC recommended allowances, while only 2% of the Marshallese were in this group. 95% of the Marshallese were in the under 70% of NRC recommended allowances group.
For other differences in the diets, 43% of the Trukese were in the upper group for calories and only 4% of the Marshallese were in this group. 78% of the Marshallese were in the lowest group for calor“ in- take. It was breadfruit season in Udot and everyone had large quantities
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of “kon" to eat, while in the Marshall Islands the breadfruit season had not started.
. For protein intakes, 52% of the Trukese-were in the upper group for protein intake, while only 29% of the Marshallese were in this groupe On Udot, the women of the village were responsible for fishing while the men of the village were responsible for “kon" making. Each day the women were out in the reef looking for shellfish or octopus.
At least once a week, they fished in groups with their hand nets in the lagoons About once in two.weeks, the Chief's wife took all the available, women of the village on the Chief's boat and they went out in the ocean to fish leaving their homes very early in the morning and returmming very lete at night. They came back with large amounts of fish, which they divided among the people of the village. Men did the fishing on Majuro, usually on Saturdayse hal
For phosphorus intakes, 36% of the Trukese were in the upper group and only 8% of the Marshallese were in this group., Usually foods that have calcium have phosphorus also, so that it often follows that
~,, when: gphedus. intakes are low phosphorus intakes are also lowe
For thiamine intakes, 46% of the Trukese were in ane upper group, and only 20% of the Marshallese were in this group. For the Trukese, the large amounts of breadfruit eaten may account for the ., thiamine intake.
ee ee ee ee - —- — > = :
For iron and niacin intakes, Marshallese were in the upper gZYOUpSe i
Both the Trukese and Marshallese diets were low in fat, riboflavin, Vitamin A, and ascorbic acid. ee
Trukese did not include coconut sap in their diets as it was unlawful to tap coconut trees, This law was put in effect to curtail the making of fermented coconut sap liquor.” Large quantities of coconut sap were used by the Marshallese.
The reasons for the existence of these deficiencies and how they may be remedied is discussed in the section under Recommendations Based on Dietary Studies in the Nutrition Study of ‘the Marshall Islands.
ee ills alee
- SUMMARY
Seven-day dietary records of 157 Marshallese of Majuro Village, Marshall Islands and 290 Trukese of Udot, Truk District, Caroline Islands, from the age of dne’to 70 years of age were studied for: daily quantities — of calories, protéin, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, Vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid. These figures were then compared with ‘National Research Cowmcil allowances. Tables are given with figures for average intakes, NRC allowances, percent of allowances, ‘percent of subjects below allowances, for calories, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbi¢e acid. Differences and similarities in the nutrient intakes ‘of the Marshallese and Trukese
a
2e
35
he
lls “1952. Chapter XXTIT, pe 468.
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~ : BIBLIOGRAPHY
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./ portions oa used. ‘7th edition, 1951,
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